The relevance of the principles and practices of Buddhism to the field of
counseling is discussed. Buddhist techniques have already been used by the
helping professions in many settings (e.g. Japan, Sri Lanka). The extension
of their use to a wider range of settings, and to a wider group of clients,
is both feasible and desirable. In addition to the obvious relevance of
Buddhist techniques to clients who have a Buddhist background, it is argued
that they have a wider applicability. As Buddhism espouses the notion of a
productive and healthy lay life, it offers ways not only of dealing with
problems and difficulties, but also of improving psychological well-being
in general. Examples are cited of relevant Buddhist techniques and their
application. It is argued that, once systematically evaluated, many of
these could profitably be incorporated into the repertoire of techniques
used in present-day counseling and therapy.

The value and utility of techniques and approaches found in religious and
spiritual traditions in the context of therapy and counselling are
recognised by many present-day writers and practitioners (Mikulas, 1983).
Many see the arena of counselling as a broad field, into which ideas and
practices from different sources can and should be incorporated as
necessary. Given the diversity of clients that one is called upon to help,
and the wide variety of problems and predicaments that they bring, it is
natural that practitioners turn to a diversity of sources in search of the
right concepts and techniques in a given situation.

Buddhism has been used particularly widely in this way. Several present-day
therapy settings have used Buddhist techniques and ideas, and the reports
available suggest a positive and fruitful outcome. For example, Kishimoto
(1985) has reported on the use of Zen Buddhist techniques for neurotic
patients in Japan, and there are reports on the use of Early Buddhist
techniques with groups of alcoholics and drug addicts in Kandy, Sri Lanka
(e.g. de Silva and Samarasinghe, 1985).

The relevance of Buddhism to counselling

There are several ways in which Buddhism can be relevant to the practice of
counselling. The most obvious is the need to find suitable techniques in
counselling Buddhist clients, to whom many of the Western techniques may
seem alien and therefore be less acceptable. The problems inherent in using
techniques developed in the industrialised West with client populations
from a different cultural background are now well-recognised (e.g.
d'Ardenne and Mahtani, 1989; Ward, 1983). The attitude of optimism that
prevailed among therapists and counsellors some decades ago - that good
techniques will always work, irrespective of whom they are applied to - is
no longer widely held. An approach or a technique has to be seen by the
client as making sense, and has to fit into his/her overall life view, in
order that he/she may comply fully with therapeutic instructions. Such
compliance is a necessary condition for the success of the intervention.
The literature has numerous examples of client-technique mismatch and its
negative consequences, and - conversely - of the benefits of matching
client and technique. Singh and Oberhummer (1980), for example, describe
the successful use of the Hindu concept of Karma Yoga in therapy with a
female Hindu client.

The value of Buddhist concepts and techniques in treating and counselling
Buddhist clients, then, should be obvious. The examples provided earlier,
of the uses of Buddhism in therapeutic settings in Japan and Sri Lanka,
provide empirical support for this.

Secondly, Buddhism has always had a counselling and therapeutic role, in
the wide sense, in Buddhist communities. Even in the present day, Buddhist
monks are turned to for advice, support and counselling, by lay Buddhists.
This happens in Thailand, Burma, Sri Lanka and elsewhere (see Gombrich,
1988). The Buddhist monk is seen as someone who can take a detached and
objective view of a problem, and provide sensible solutions, or at least
support and consolation. This tradition is historically well-grounded, as
the Buddha himself (563-83 BC) was, in his life, very much a counsellor in
this way. The life of this Buddha is replete with examples of the Master
providing emotional support and comfort, and often advice and counselling,
to those who needed help (Kalupahana and Kalupahana, 1982; Saddhatissa,
1970).

Some of these instances are striking for their dramatic quality, as in the
case of Patacara. This young woman's infant son died, and she carried the
body of the child asking anyone and everyone to restore him to life.
Eventually she came to the Buddha. The Buddha said to her that he would
indeed restore her son to life, but in order to do so he needed some
mustard seeds from a household where no one had ever died. The young mother
then went from house to house, asking at each if there had ever been any
deaths there. During this exercise, the truth dawned on her, as the
inevitability of death became clear to her disconsolate mind. This
facilitated not only her acceptance that her child was no more, but also
her insight into the human predicament.

This story, not untypical of the Buddha's dealings with lay persons, is
fully recounted in several sources (e.g. de Silva, 1984). The Buddha also
often offered advice to husbands, wives, parents, masters, servants, the
royalty, and those in various professions, who had problems. This is the
tradition that is still found in Buddhist communities, with monks
functioning in a counselling role for their lay brethren (Saddhatissa,
1970).

Thirdly, Buddhism has a strong and pragmatic lay ethic which provides a
framework for counselling those in need of help. Buddhism is not a religion
with the ultimate and/or the hereafter as its sole concern. Much attention
is paid to the day-to-day life of lay persons. Buddhism accepts that only a
small minority will renounce lay life and devote themselves entirely to
life of personal and spiritual development. The majority do not do this,
and remain as lay persons. For them, the Buddha's advice was that they
should lead a life which was conducive to the well-being of themselves and
others (Saddhatissa, 1970; Tachibana, 1926). This meant that people were
reminded of their duties, rights, and social and personal obligations. The
criteria of what was ethically correct was whether it was conducive to the
individual's or his/her fellow-beings' happiness and satisfactory living.
For example, people were advised against the abuse of alcoholic substances,
not because it went against some religious dogma or principle, but because
the behaviour had demonstrable ill-effects. These included: loss of wealth;
proneness to ill-health; proneness to socially embarrassing behaviour;
disrepute; and ultimate mental derangement (see de Silva, 1983). This
clearly pragmatic social ethic of Buddhism makes it particularly well
placed to offer help to those who are afflicted by the day-to-day problems
of living, such as grief, disappointment, anger, fear and jealousy.

Finally, Buddhist literature contains references to a large number of
specific strategies for behavioural change. These are clearly behavioural
and cognitive strategies, as they operate directly on the behaviour or
cognition in question. As has been shown in detail elsewhere (e.g. de
Silva, 1984; Mikulas, 1981), these Buddhist techniques foreshadowed many of
the cognitive and behavioural techniques that have been developed in recent
decades in Western psychology and psychiatry. The fact that many of these
techniques are more or less the same as their modern counterparts also
means that they already have empirical validation, as the latter have been
tested in numerous clinical trials and controlled case-studies. The
repertoire of specific techniques that Buddhism has for counselling is
impressive indeed. These include: systematic use of rewards and punishment;
fear reduction by graded exposure; modelling; self-monitoring; stimulus
control; overt and covert aversion; use of family members for implementing
a behaviour-change programme; and specific techniques, including
distraction and over-exposure, for unwanted intrusive cognitions.

Preventive work

There is a further aspect of Buddhism which is relevant to counselling in
the wider sense of the term. Buddhism offers much that can help in the
prophylaxis, or prevention, of psychological disorder and distress. That is
a fundamental aspect of Buddhism, as its main goal is to deal with the
human predicament. Alongside success, joy and happiness, life contains
failure, sadness, gloom and despair. Friendships and other relationships
are fraught with problems. Those we are attached to move away, or die. One
may lose one's career, wealth, and offspring. Buddhism recognises, as a
fundamental truth, this distressing state of affairs, which co-exists with
the seemingly happy and successful aspects of life. This is the conundrum
to which the Buddha devoted his life. In the present day, where
competitiveness, material success, strong attachments and power are the
order of the day, there are numerous inevitable problems that bring
distress to one. The overall Buddhist attitude geared towards reducing
attachments, and the specific techniques aimed at managing the
vulnerability of the individual to the effects of the vast and powerful
array of stimuli around him or her, both have something to offer in
reducing the chances of distress and disorder. If one learns not to be
attached too strongly to others, not to be overdependent, not to be
incessantly acquisitive, not to equate happiness with material earth, power
or fame, then the probability of a breakdown in such a person must be
reduced. This preventive aspect is possibly one of the most valuable
potential contributions of Buddhism to the practice of counselling. Both
the overall philosophy and the specific behaviour-change techniques,
including meditative practices, have a role to play in this context.

Discussion

It is not suggested that all counselling should take a Buddhist stance.
Counselling needs to draw upon a wide range of sources, and Buddhism
happens to be one among these sources, and a particularly rich one at that.
The use of its concepts and techniques for appropriate clients and
appropriate problems can only enhance the practice of counselling. The
ultimate test of any technique or idea is whether it produces the desired
results. The implication of this is that Buddhist ideas and techniques,
used in the context of counselling, need to satisfy this test: they should
have efficacy. As noted earlier. some of the specific Buddhist strategies
for behavioural change already have the backing of empirical evidence. This
is because their modern counterparts have been subjected to rigorous trials
with various client populations. As for those Buddhist techniques and
concepts that do not have modern counterparts, there is a need to evaluate
them empirically. Such evaluation is entirely in keeping with the overall
spirit of enquiry found in the Buddha's approach to problems. If such
evaluation demonstrates that tines can produce the desired results, then
they can be incorporated into the repertoire of techniques in counselling
practice today.

References

d'Ardenne, P., and Mahtani, A.: Transcultural Counselling in Action.
London: Sage, 1989.

de Silva, P.: `The Buddhist Attitude to Alcoholism'. In Edwards, G., Arif,
A., and Jaffe, J. (eds): Drug Use and Misuse: Cultural Perspectives.
London: Croom Helm, 1983.

de Silva, P.: `Buddhism and Behaviour Modification'. Behaviour Research and
Therapy, Volume 22, 1984.

de Silva, P., and Samarasinghe, D.: `Behaviour Therapy in Sri Lanka'.
Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, Volume 16, 1985.

Gombrich, R.: Theravada Buddhism. London: Routledge, 1988.

Kalupahana, D. J., and Kalupahana, I.: The Way of Siddhartha. Boulder,
Colorado: Shambhala, 1982.

Kishimoto, K.: `Self-Awakening Psychotherapy for Neurosis: Attaching
Importance to Oriental Thought, Especially Buddhist Thought'. Psychologia,
Volume 28, 1985.

Mikulas, W. L.: `Buddhism and Behaviour Modification'. The Psychological
Record, Volume 31, 1981.

Mikulas, W. L.: `Skills of Living. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of
America, 1983.

Saddhatisssa, H.: Buddhist Ethics. London: Allen & Unwin, 1970.

Singh, R., and Oberhummer, I.: `Behaviour Therapy Within a Setting of Karwa
Yoga'. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, Volume 11,
1980.

Tachibana, S.: The Ethics of Buddhism. London, Curzon, 1926.

Ward, C.: `The Role and Status of Psychology in Developing Nations'.
Bulletin of the British Psychological Society, Volume 36, 1983.

Correspondence should be addressed to: Padmal de Silva, Department of
Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF.