A Pre-Buddhist meditation system and Early Modificatios by Gotama the Bodhisattva (II)
Biswadeb Mukherjee
Visiting Professor Chung-Hwa Institute of
Buddhist Studies
Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal,No.9,(1996.07)
pp.309∼339
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In the present article we have mainly studied
the Dvedhavitakka-sutta for evaluating Gotama the
Bodhisattva's contribution to the sramana system
of meditation. The entire sutta represents an
amalgam of two different pieces of teachings, one
of which is recoreded in the First Part of the
translated materials and the other is contained in
the Second and Thirdparts of the same.
The First Part of the materials presents an
intermingling of two traditions; one of these
traditions is concerned with the Buddha's teaching
about the two types of thoughts while the other
narrates the actual strivings of Gotama the
Bodhisattva regarding the same two types of thoughts.
According to the second tradition Gotama got rid of
the evil thoughts of desire, malevolence and violence
by adeversely criticising them and then he developed
the opposite good thoughts of renunciation,
benevolence and compassion through appreciative
deliberations.The contents of both the adverse
criticism and the appreciative deliberations are
concerned with the wholesome and unwholesome effects
of the good thoughts and the evil thoughts
respectively, and in no way associated with panna
and nibbana.
The First Part was originally an independent
piece of teaching and cannot be regarded as a prelude
to the second and third parts. But we have no reason
to doubt the authenticity of the tradition contained
in the first Part that Gotama valued the mental
morality more than the physical morality. It is one
of the points in which Gotama deviated from the
traditional spiritual practices of the sramanas.
The Second Part and the Third Part give an account
of the meditative system by practising which Gotama
attained bodhi and other vijjas. The four rupa
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jhanas constituted an important part of this system.
The jhana formulas he followed omit the term parama-
ditthadhamma-nibbanam found in the rupa jhana
formulas of the Parama-ditthadhamma-nibbanavadins.
This change was first made by the ascetics practising
the Arupya-samapattis, and Gotama later accepted it.
The rest of the formulas has been preserved unaltered.
The term atta was dropped later by Gotama the Buddha
when he preached the dhamma. This shows that Gotama
followed the traditional meditative techniques and
attained identical jhanic states previously realised
by the other sramanas but his evaluation of the jhanic
states was differnet. He, like the Arupyavadins,
rejected the interpretation of the various pleasant
feelings(vedana)as nibbana, the ultimate spiritual
goal. On the other hand he alone appreciated the
mental qualities of purified mindfulness ect. that
enabled him to experience the neutral feeling of
adukkhamasukham in the fourth rupa jhana. This
jhanic state he rightly recognised as a means to
higher spiritual goal.
He did not value any subjective pleasant
experience which was temporarily free from dukkha.
So he was able to get detached from the feeling of
adukkham-asukham, but unlike the Arupyavadins he
did not enter into any trance-like state of infinite
space ect. Consequently the mental state in which
he remained was detached from mental reaction to
any object observed and so was fully alert,
perfectly mindful and concentrated. This mental
state was a unique contribution to the sramana
culture and was mostvalued by him.
This special mental state he applied to gain
three knowledges(vijja), one of which was bodhi,
the complete and perfect wisdom. The first
expression of the bodhi was the absolutely objective
and complete knowledge concerning the asravas.
This knowledge took him out of the cycle of repeated
births and deaths. And he knew that he had become
liberated, never to be born again. The liberation
which Gotama attained may be termed 'cetovimutti'.
By going for and attaining bodhi with the help
of the special mental state Gotama completely broke
away from the trodden path of the sramanas and
revolutionised the spiritual world of the samanas.
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The TheravAda NikAya(註1) and the Agama of the
other Buddhist schools have preserved several
accounts regarding the spiritual practices of Gotama
the Bodhisattva. These accounts inform us about the
aspects of pre-Buddhist ZramaNa meditation which
Gotama accepted as well as the aspects which he
rejected or modified. By modification we mean both
the minor changes introduced by Gotama into the
existing meditative system and the novel additions
made by him signalling complete break from the earlier
systems.
Gotama practised the four rUpa jhAnas according
to the unanimous tradition recorded in the different
sutras of the NikAya and other Buddhist texts,but it
was practised as a part of a larger system of
meditation.(註2) It differs significantly on various
points from the meditative syatem of the DiTTha-dhamma-
nibbAnavAdins. We have to be aware of the possibility
that all these modifications could not have been done
by Gotama alone. This system of four rUpa jhAnas
originated with the DiTTha-dhamma-nibbanavadins (註3)
and was later followed by ArupyavAdins(註4) even
before Gotama practised it.It is well known that the
ArupyavAdins had rejected the philosophy of the DiTTha-
dhamma-nibbAnavAdins and consequently changed the
earlier meditation formula to some extent.So some of
the modifications of the rUpa jhAna system recorded
in the
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1)Bhayabherava sutta,M I,p.17-23; MahAsaccaka-sutta,
ibid.240-49 (PTS, London 1979; SangArava sutta,M.
II,pp.211-12 (PTS London,1977)etc.
2)In Kandaraka sutta,M.I,347-48, Bhayabherava sutta,
ibid.SangArava-sutta, ibid. MahAsaccaka-sutta, ibid.
the four rUpa jhAnas are preceded by some ascetic
practices and followed by the attainment three
vijjAs. See also the BhaddAli-sutta,M.I,pp. 440-42.
Thus the four rupa jhanas form only a part of the
entire meditative system followed by Gotama.
3)From the Brahmajala-sutta it appears that the
Parama -diTThadhamma- nibbAnavAdins represent the
earliest sect to be associated with the four rUpa
jhAnas and they flourished before the Buddha, D.I,p.
37. (PTS,London,1975); see also the first part of
the present article, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal,No.8,
July 1995,p.460.
4)The formless states can be attained only after
transcending the worlds of rUpa.In D.I,pp.34-35,
183ff. D.II,p.156; M.I,pp.33, 454-55 the formless
samapattis follow the four rUpa jhAnas; see also
the first part of the present article,pp.457-59.
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NikAyas while describing the spiritual exertions
of Gotama might have been done by the ArupyavAdins
and later accepted by Gotama. According to the
tradition preserved in the commentary of the Majjhima
Nikaya Gotama parctised the four rUpa jhAnans under
the direction of the ArupyavAdins teacher. This is
partially supported by their samapatti formula which
shows that this sect attained the sphere of infinite
space by transcending the sphere of rUpa. So while
studying the modified system of meditation followed
by Gotama we would attempt to ascertain which of
these modifications were wrought by Gotama and which
by the other ZramaNa sect.It is necessary to precisely
know the contributions made by Gotama in this respect
if we are to have clear idea about the extent and
significance of his role in the development of the
ZramaNa system of meditation.
We will base our study of Gotama's contribution
to ZramaNa system of Gotama's meditation on the
DvedhAvitakka-sutta.(註5) This sutta while giving the
shortest available account of the entire journey of
Gotama to Buddhahood, has provided us with an early
account of the four jhAnas as a part of a different
meditative system practised by Gotama the Bodhisattva.
We may first translate the relevant portions of
the sutta and arrange them in three parts to facilitate
our study.
FIRST PART
Before my enlightenment, bhiksus, this thought
occured to me who was still an unenlightened
Bodhisattva : "Suppose that I should abide dividing
my thoughts into two parts.' Then, Bhiksus, whatever
was thought of desire (註6)(about five sense-objects),
whatever was thought of malevolence(byApAda),whatever
was thought
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5)M.I,p.114ff.
6)As pointed out before (p.468 of the first part of
the present article) kAma may mean either desire
or desirable object. We have seen that kAma has
been used in the sense of desirable object in the
formula of the first jhAna(ibid.) This interpretation
is supported by the Atthasalini,pp.164-65, 219 (PTS,
London, 1979) which explains kAma as vatthukAma,
and kAmehi vivicca as being physically separated
from the desirable objects. In the DvedhA-vitakka-
sutta kAma is compounded with vitakka and
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of violence(vihimsA) I made into one part. And
whatever was thought of renunciation, whatever was
thought of benevolence(abyApAda) and whatever was
thought of compassion(avihimsA)(註7) I made into a
second part.
As a thought of sensual desire (kAmavitakka)
arose in me who was abiding careful, energetic and
concentrated,I knew thus : 'This thought of sensual
desire has arisen in me. This is injurious to myself,
injurious to others, injurious to both; it obstructs
the mental state of panna (pannanirodhiko)(註8),belongs
to the class of obstacles (vighAtapakkhiko),and is not
suitable for nibbAna(anibbAnasmvattaniko). When I
reflected: 'This thought is injurious to myself',it
disappeared; when I reflected : 'It is injurious to
others',it disappeared. When I reflected:It is injurious
to both',it disappeared. When I reflected:
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in the present context it means desire. Here the
term kAma-vitakka occurs together with byApAda-
vitakka and vihiMsA-vitakka in a series, and vihimsa
and byapada can never mean 'object of violence' and
'object of malevolence' respectively.
7)The prefix 'a' of the terms abyapada and avihimsa
may mean either negation or contrariness Here it
should be taken in the sense of contrariness. So
the terms abyapada and avihimsA should be understood
in the opposite, positive meanings of benevolenve
and compassion respectively. The meditative process
in the present sutta also supports this interpretation.
We find that first the thoughts of byApAda and
vihimsa are made to stop from arising in mind, and
then the thoughts of abyapada and avihimsa are
cultivated with appreciative deliberations. It is
obvious that the thoughts of abyapada and avihimsa
cannot mean mere absence of byApAda and vihimsa We
may also note that in the Bhayabherava-sutta, p.18,
mettacitta is given as the opposite of byapannacitta
Again in the Kandaraka- sutta (M.I,p.345) and the
SAmannaphala-sutta (D.I,63) we read that one, gentle
and kindly,desists from the killing of living beings
and abides compassionate to all living beings.
8)Panna in the present context does not stand for
true knowledge. Here it means a special mental
state which is essential for gaining an insight
into the true nature of the conditioned. See page.
14-16.
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'It obstructs the mental state of panna, belongs to
the class of obstacles, and is not suitable for nibbAna,
it disappeared.
I,bhiksus,as the thought of sensual desire arose
again and again,I kept on abandoning it, driving it
out and made an end of it. As a thought of malevolence
arose in me .......a thought of violence arose in me
who was abiding careful,energetic and concentrated, I
knew thus : 'This thought of violence has arisen in
me.This is injurious to myself, injurious to others,
injurious to both; it obstructs panna,belongs to the
class of obstacles,and is not suitable for nibbana'.
When I reflected ........it subsided in me. As the
thought of violence arose again and again, I kept on
abandoning it and made an end of it. Bhiksus, whatever
a bhiuksu thinks and reflects much, that becomes the
inclination of his mind. Bhiksus, when a bhiksu thinks
and reflects (anuvitakketi anuvicAreti)9 much the
thought of sensual desire, he has given up the thought
of renunciation; he has multiplied the thoughts of
desire and his mind inclines towards the thought of
desire. If he thinks and reflects much the thought
of malevolence .....thought of violence, he has given
up the thought of compassion(avihimsAvitakka); he has
multiplied the thoughts of violence and his mind
inclines towards the thought of violence.
Just as .... in the autumn, when the crops thicken,
he would guard his cows.... why is that? Because he
sees he could be flogged... blamed ( if he let them
stray into the crops). Similarly I saw danger,
degradation and defilement in unwholesome mental
states;(and I
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9)The phrase 'anuvitakketi anuvicAreti' does not
have any sense of judgement like vitakka and vicAra
in the formula of the first jhAna. Not only the good
thoughts of nekkhamma etc but also the basic evil
thoughts of kAma and the like increase as a result
of anuvitakka and anuvicAra. The phrase simply means
thinking again and again the same type of thought.
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saw) the advantages of cleansing in the renunciation
(of these evil states) for the wholesome mental states.
(註10)
As the thought of renunciation occured to me who was
abiding thus alert energetic and concentrated, I
knew thus: 'This thought of renunciation has arisen
in me; this is not injurious to myself,is not injurious
to others,is not injurious to both; this is for the
growth of panna (pannabuddhiko),does not belong to
the class of obstacles (avighAtapakkhiko) and is
suitable for nibbana(nibbAnasamvattaniko).If I should
think and reflect that (i.e.the thought of renunciation)
even for a night.... even for a day ....even for a
night and a day I do not see any fear from this source.
But if I think and reflect for too long, my body might
get tired; when the body is tired, the mind might
get impaired; when the mind is impaired it is far
from concentration. (Having thought this) I internally
steadied my mind,calmed it,made it unidirectional and
concentrated. Why is that ? So that my mind might not
be impaired. "Just as in the last month of summer
season when all the crops have been carried inside
the settlement, a cowherd would be guarding the cows;
while staying at the root of a tree or out in the
open his duty is to be mindful (satikaraNIyam) thus :
"These are cows. Similarly, bhiksus, my duty was to
be mindful thus :'These are mental states'.(註11) "My
energy that was exerted was fully manifest,the
attending mindfulness was not distracted.the body
that was calm was imperturbable,and the concentrated
mind was one pointed".
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10)This statement indicates that the cleansing of mind
due to the renunciationof evil thoughts is suitable
for the cultivation of the good thoughts.
11)The dhammas or mental states of which Gotama is
mindful should refer to good thoughts, for the evil
thoughts are no longer arising.A few lines before
Gotama speaks of making his mind concentrated. The
object of concentration also should be good thought.
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SECOND PART
"Bhiksus, I having physically separated(註12) myself
from desirable objects and having separated from
unwholesome mental states abided after attaining
the first jhAna which is born of separation,
characterised by rapturous happiness, and accompanied
by thoughts of enquiry and judgemental decision."
(Like the formula of the first jhAna,the account of
the other three jhAnas is identical with the
description of the rUpa jhAnas of the Parama-diTTha-
dhamma-nibbAnavAdins except on two points,namely,
the two terms attA and parama-diTTha-dhamma-
nibbAnavAdins, present in the earlier formula, are
absent in the formulas described by Gotama the
Bodhisattva.For translation, se the first part of the
article.)(註13)
THIRD PART
When my concentrated mind was thus purified,clean,
without blemish, without defilement, pliant, workable,
steady and immovable, I directed my mind to the knowledge
of recollection of past lives (pubbenivAsanussatinAna).
( Now follows an account of innumerable past lives
remembered by Gotama with such details as to clan,
family, appearance etc.that were also obtained in
meditation by ZramaNas and brAhmaNas who later became
the upholders of the SAZvatavAda)(註14). This was the
first knowledge (paThama vijja) mastered by me in
the first watch of the night.
When my concentrated mind ....... immovable, I directed
my mind to the knowledge of the passing away and
rebirth (cutupapatanana) of beings. With the purified
divine eye surpassing the human, I saw beings passing
away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful
and ugly,born into
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12)See note No.6.
13)Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, Taipei, No.8, pp.460-63.
14)See Chung-Hwa Buddhist Jouranl, No.6,pp.402-3.
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good existence and evil existence (sugate duggate).
I knew the beings who follow the consequences of their
actions thus : 'These worthy beings were possessed
of bodily wrong conduct, wrong connduct of mind,
revilers of noble ones, held a wrong view, performed
actions according to the wrong view; they on the
dissolution of the body after death have fallen into
misfortune,an evil existence, have arisen in hell.
But the (other) worthy beings were possessed of bodily
good conduct,possessed of good conduct of speech,
possessed of good conduct of mind, not revilers of
noble ones,holders of a right view; they on the
dissolution of the body after death are born in a
good existence in a heavenly world."
When my concentrated mind.......immovable, I directed
my mind to the knowledge of the destruction of
defilements(asavakhayanana). I directly knew as it
really is : 'These are the defilements'.I directly
knew as it is really is:'This is the origin of the
defilements'.I directly knew as it really is:'This
is the cessation of the defilements'. I directly
knew as it really is:This is the way leading to the
cessation of the defilements'. "When I knew and saw
thus, my mind was freed from the defilement of
sensual desire (kAmAsava), my mind was freed from
the defilement of becoming (bhavAsava), and my mind
was freed from the defilement of ignorance (avijjAsava).
When it (citta) was freed, there came the knowledge:
"Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been lived,
what has to be done has been done, there is no more
any such state of being'.Oh brahmin, in the last
watch of the night this third knowledge was mastered
by me.
On the arrangement of the textual material in translation
The relevant materials which represent a continuous
narrative have been divided in the present article
into three parts, each dealing with a separate theme.
In the Pali text each of these parts appears to
represent a stage in the progression from lower to
higher spiritual states.The characterisation of these
parts as first,second and third only shows the
arrangement of events in the order in which they
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were believed to have occurred. But this does not
necessarily indicate that the earlier stages can be
taken as preludes to the later stages. We have later
shown that the First Part cannot be taken as a prelude
to the Second Part.(註15) The arrangement of the
material as given in the Pali text has been changed
in one place in the present translation.The last few
lines of the First Part of the translation beginning
with 'My energy' and ending with 'concentrated mind
was one-pointed' marks the beginning of the Second
Part according to the Pali text, and so appears to be
connected with the attainment of the first jhana. The
reasons for this change is that the mental state
described in these few lines cannot be identical with
the mental state prior to the attainment of the first
jhAna. The mental state as described in these lines is
definitely higher than the first jhanic state. Before
the attainment of the first jhAna the judgemental
deliberations (vitakka-vicAra) against kAma and
akusala-dhammas have not yet come to an end; these
deliberations accompany the first jhAna. But due to
the inclusion of such expressions as 'samAhitam cittam
ekaggam' and 'upaTThitA sati asammuTThA' in these
lines it is clear that Gotama has got rid of the
evil thoughts and consequently the criticism of such
thoughts has also come to an end. Moreover, not only
the characterisation of the mental state as 'samAhitam
cittam ekaggam' reminds one of the second jhAna but
also its description as 'upaTThitA sati asammuTThA'
brings out its similarity with the fourth rUpa jhAna
which is characterised by 'upekkhA-sati-pArisuddhi'.
On the other hand the description of the mental state
given at the end of the First Part is in harmony with
what has been enunciated in the rest of the First
Part, and can be accepted as the concluding statement
of the First Part. The final result of the cultivation
of morality, as given in the First Part,is the
achievement of the perfect mindfulness by getting rid
of the immoral thoughts and ensuring the effortless
arising of the moral thoughts. The concluding lines
of the First Part similarly speaks of perfect
mindfulness together with other mental factors which
help one to remain alert and mindful, namely,energy,
calmness of body and concentration of mind. These
other factors are but the inevitable consequences of
the stopping of the ceaseless agitation of mind, and
of mindfulness. So the statement about the mental
state
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15) See,the present article, pp.319∼321.
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which is taken to be connected with the first jhAna
in the Pali text should be taken as the concluding
portion of the First part.(註16)
Study of the First Part── Can the First Part be
taken as a prelude to the Second Part ?
In the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta the spiritual exercises
for the cultivation of mental morality (and mindfulness)
which constitute the First Part of the English
translation,are immediately followed by the account
of the four rUpa jhAnas which marks the beginning of
the Second Part of the translation.It appears that
the materials have been have been arranged in the
Sutta in this way in order to show that the First
Part should be taken as a prelude to the account of
the four jhAnas. Or it might have been the interntion
of the compiler of the Sutta merely to point out that
the events depicted in the First Part occured before
the attainment of the first jhAna. Due to the following
considerations the events in the First Part neither
can be taken as a prelude to the First jhAna nor can
they be shown to have taken place before the attainment
of the first jhAna.:
1) In case of the Parama-diTTha-dhamma-nibbAnavAdins
we have seen that there is a close correspondence
between the contents of the Preparatory stage and
the first jhAna formula.Both deal with feelings
(vedanA) vis-a-vis desirable objects. The spiritual
practices of the Preparatory stage smoothly and
naturally develops into the mental state of the
first jhAna.(註17) The DvedhA-vitakka-sutta, on the
other hand, presents a different picture.Here the
account of the First Part is different from that
of the Preparatory stage.,
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16)In a number of suttas, e.g. the SAmabbaphala-sutta
(PTS, London, 1975) D.I,p.75, Kandaraka-sutta and
MahAsaccaka-sutta M.I,pp. 347, 247 (PTS, London,
1979), SangArava-sutta, M.II,p.212 (PTS.London,1977)
the stock of piece of teaching comprised of four
jhanas, the special mental state and bodhi is not
preceded by the the two types of thoughts. In these
suttas also the description of the mental state
beginning with 'Arabdham viryam' is missing. This
shows that this statement regarding the mental state
originally was not connected with the four jhAnas
but with the two types of thoughts.Hence we are
justified in taking this statement as the concluding
lines of the First Part.
17)See, Chung-Hwa Instutute of Buddhist Journal,(No.8
1995) pp.463 ff.468-72.
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but the description of the meditative experience
of the first jhAna remains unchanged.(註18) The
main burden of the First Part is the development
of the mental morality to the exclusion of the
immoral thoughts, and the problem of feeling is
not considered at all. On the contrary the four
jhAnas are mainly concerned with the feelings.
Again, mental morality stands for the relative
goodness of thoughts while feeling deals with
the quality of agreeableness or disagreeableness
of an experience. So neither the immoral thoughts
nor the moral thoughts find any mention in the
jhAna formulas. For example, the moral thoughts
of renunciation, benevolence and compassion the
cultivation of which is the main theme of the First
Part do not find mention in the first jhAna formula.
2) From our study of the Parama-diTTha-dhamma-
nibbAnavAdins we have seen that the preparatory
stage provides us with explanations of technical
terms like kAma and akusaladhamma mentioned in
the first jhAna formula as well as the contents
of the judgemental deliberations.(註19) In case of
the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta the account translated
as the First Part and mentioned just before the
first jhAna formula, if taken as the prelude to
the attainment of the first jhAna,should also
explain the technical terms kama and akusala-
dhamma.
Now in accordance with the account of the First
Part of the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta 'kAma' should
mean desire while the akusaladhammas should stand
for the three vitakkas viz. kAma-vitakka, byApAda-
vitakka and vihimsA-vitakka. In this case the term
kAma becomes superflous, for there is no longer
any need to mention kAma as distinct from the
akusala-dhammas. KAma is included in the
akusaladhammas. So it appears that Gotama did not
interpret the terms kAma and akusaladhammas in
the sense these terms have been used in the First
Part of the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta, but understood
these terms in the earlier sense of desirable
object and depressive mental states.
3) We may further note that the mental state described
in the First Part is similar to the second jhAna
and the fourth jhAna, and is free from all
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18)See, present article, p5; first issue of the article,
pp.460-61.
19)Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal (No.8,1995),pp.468-69.
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judgemental deliberations, concerntrated and perfectly
mindful. In short it is much highter than the first
jhanic state. So the mental state in the First Part
could neither have been developed before the first
jhAna nor could be taken as a prelude to the first
jhAna.
We may therefore conclude that the teachings
regarding the cultivation of mental morality as given
in the First Part originally formed an independent
sutta or a part of such a sutta, and was in no way
connected with the enunciation of the four jhAnas.That
the sutta has been given the name of DvedhA-vitakka-
sutta also supports our conclusion that this sutta
originally dealt only with the problem of two types
of thoughts and not with the four jhAnas.Even now we
have a sutta which deals exclusively with the two
types of thoughts, viz. the Vitakka-santhAna-sutta.
(MI, 118ff.) In this connection we may also note that
the remaining part of the present version of the
DvedhA-vitakka-sutta comprising four jhAnas and the
attainment of three vijjAs represents a stock piece
of teaching which also forms a part of many other
suttas. Thus there is no reason to hold that this
piece of teaching was originally a part of the
DvedhA-vitakka-sutta. This finding leads to three
important conclusions :1) The present version of the
DvedhA-vitakka-sutta is an amalgam of originally two
separate pieces of teachings, the one dealing with
the mental morality, and the other with the attainment
of four jhAnas, and three vijjAs. 2) In the spiritual
practices followed by Gotama for attaining the first
jhAna the terms kAma and akusaladhammas must have been
used in the sense in which the Parama-diTTha-dhamma-
nibbAnavAdins understood them, viz. the desirable
object and the depressive mental states. Gotama also
got physically separated from the desirable objects
in order to be free from depressive mental states
and thereby to attain the first jhAna. 3) The judgemental
deliberations with the help of which Gotama got rid
of kama and akusaladhamma must be different from the
judgemental deliberations given in the First Part.
His deliberations had nothing to do with panna and
nibbAna, but were solely concerned with the
disadvantages of the possession of desiarable objects
and the advantages in the renunciation of such objects.
(also see p.13)
The meditative process in the First Part
The barest outline of the process of meditation
sketched in the First Part may
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be described as follows : Gotama perceives the arising
of good thoughts and evil thoughts in his mind and he
stops the arising of evil thoughts.Next he cultivates
the good thoughts. He then desists from the cultivation
of good thoughts but does not take any step against
the spontaneous arising of good thoughts.Finally he
remains mindful of the good thoughts which arises
without any effort on his part.
The process of meditation as given in the First
Part is determined by the observation of some
psychological facts and laws as well as by some
intellectual understanding. Gotama the Bodhisattva at
the beginning of his spiritual journey observed that
he had two types of thoughts which we may call good
(i.e.the thoughts of renunciation etc.) or evil (i.e.
the thoughts of desire etc.), for these thoughts can
produce good or bad effects for him. By thought is
meant mentally verbalising the reactions of mind to
an object observed. He intellectually understands the
danger of having bad thoughts and the benefits of
good thoughts. He applies the thoughts of bad effects
or good effects of his basic thoughts as adverse
criticism or appreciative deliberations respectively.
He found out that bad thoughts disappeared due to
adverse criticism while good thoughts increased due
to appreciation. He further observed that whatever
one thought and reflected much that became the
inclination of mind.It means that the way the mind
would automatically react to an object depends on
the type of thought one repeatedly had before.An
inclined state of mind has been explained thus :
"When a bhikkhu thinks and reflects the thought of
sensual desire much he has already given up the
thought of renunciation; he has multiplied the thought
of desire and his mind inclines the thought of desire".
He also realised the danger of evil thoughts.It should
be noted that the danger of having evil thoughts is
not explicitly brought into connection with the non-
attainment of prajna and nirvAna; it appears more to
be result of the operation of the law of karma.Moreover
he saw that it was advantageous for him to give up evil
thoughts, for then he would be able to cultivate good
thoughts.Consequently he made determined efforts to
give up evil thoutghts. Whenever evil thoughts (i.e.
thoughts of desire,malevolence and violence)arose
Gotama arranged them into one group. The evil effects
of such thoughts intellectually understood were made
into four units of adverse criticism viz. it is
injurious 1)to oneself, 2)to others 3)to both and
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4)it obstructs the development of intellect(panna)
and is not suitable for nibbana. The sutta further
states that the thought of desire arose again and
again and Gotama had to apply each of these four units
of adverse criticism separately.Everytime he applied
the thought of adverse criticism the basic thought of
desire disappeared. This statement of the sutta we may
understand in the following way.The basic thought of
desire must have been already absent when the thought
of criticism arose.Otherwise it would not have been
possible for the thought of criticism to appear in
the mind, for there can be only one thought at one
time. When the thought of criticism takes place, the
possibility of the further arising of the basic thought
of desire becomes more remote.This is expressed by
the phrase 'abbhattham gacchati'.In this way he
repeatedly drove the evil thoughts, rejected them and
thus finally made an end of them.
As the evil thoughts were not arising any more,
it was possible for Gotama to cultivate good thoughts.
In this case also he observed the arising of the three
types types of good thoughts (e.g.thoughts of
renunciation, benevolence and compassion) and put
them into one group. Then instead of adversely
criticising them he thought of them appreciatively.
This thought of appreciation which is just the opposite
of adversely critical thoughts,was also divided into
four units. He applied each of these appreciative
thoughts to the basic good thought. Consequently he
did not see any danger even if he developed good
thoughts for a long time.So the basic good thoughts
increased.
But he found out that it was not good to develop
good thought for too long a time, for in that case he
got tired and consequently his mind became impaired.
An impaired mind was not good for concentration. So
he stopped his strivings for the cultivation of good
thoughts and made his mind calm,unidirectional and
concentrated. Here the adverse criticism is against
the continual cultivation of good thoughts but not
against the good thoughts themselves. With this
concentrated mind he remains only mindful of the good
thoughts, as these thoughts arise without any effort
on his part.
The deliberations on the two types of thoughts
also come to an end at this stage.The deliberations
on the evil thoughts automatically stops when the
evil thoughts cease to arise due to adverse criticism.
On the other hand the deliberations on good thoughts
ended when he found out that continual cultivation
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of good thoughts harms concentration. And when he
stopped the cultivation of good thoughts, the
deliberations against such cultivation also ended.
But what were the contents of the deliberations
concerning the basic good thoughts and the basic evil
thoughts. They cannot be connected with the panna and
nibbAna. We can form some idea of the contents of these
deliberations if we pay attention the parable of cows
in the sutta. Here the cows represent the thoughts.A
cowherd prevents the cows from straying into fields
and detroying the crops. For he is afraid that if the
crops are destroyed , he would be flogged or punished
in other ways. Similarly one should have control over
his evil thoughts, otherwise he would suffer the ill
effects of such thoughts. The punishment spoken of
here is actual, positive. It is not just that he would
be deprived of something good that would have resulted
if the cows were properly controlled. The effects of
evil thoughts thus cannot be connected with the non-
attainment of panna and nibbAna; they are rather to
be connected with the actual punishment which he has
to suffer. Thus the judgemental deliberations against
evil thoughts should refer to the actual ill effects
that evil thoughts can produce. Similarly the merits
that follow the good thoughts should form the contents
of the appreciative deliberations regarding the good
thoughts. The characterisation of good and evil thoughts
also should change accordingly. The goodness or evilness
of a thought should not be connected with the attainment
or non-attainment of panna and nibbAna, but should refer
to the good or ill effects of a thought.
Meditative process -- an amalgam of two different traditions
The First Part of the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta represents
an intermingling of two different traditions : one
tradition is about the Buddha's teachings regarding
the two types of thoughts while the other is about the
actual strivings of Gotama the Bodhisattva concerning
the two types of thoughts.
The sutta opens with the statement that the
Bodhisattva observed that he had two types of thoughts
which he divided into two groups : one group consisting
of harmful thoughts like thoughts of desire etc. and
the other group comprising beneficial thoughts like
thoughts of renunciation etc.
Next we read about two types of judgemental
deliberations, one adversely criticising the harmful
thoughts while the other appreciating the beneficial
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thoughts. Both these deliberations contain references
to panna and nibbAna. But what can panna and nibbAna
mean in the present context ? According to the sutta
the thoughts of panna and nibbAna are occuring to the
Bodhisattva who is still suffering from evil thoughts
of kama etc. It is obvious, therefore, that - if we
accept the sutta tradition - this panna and nibbana
cannot be the panna and nibbAna preached by the Buddha.
Moreover these two concepts cannot be associated with
the other ZramaNa philosophies with which the Bodhisattva
came into contact. The nibbana of the Parama-diTTha-
dhamma-nibbAnavAdins is a plaeasant mental state which
could be attained without consciously cultivating the
mental morality and panna.
The ArupyavAdins on,the other hand, were striving
to remain absorbed in an infinite mental state, and
so it was not necessary for them to cultivate panna.
The only possibility remains that this judgemental
deliberations based on panna and nibbAna reflect the
teachings of the Buddha and is not an autobiographical
detail in the life of Gotama the Bodhisattva.
If we study the process of meditation concerning
thoughts as given in the First Part , we find that
this leads to a mental state free from judgemental
deliberations and characterised by concentration and
mindfulness. This type of mental state is indispensable
for the attainment panna, but cannot be accepted as
the mental state of a Bodhisattva who is at the
beginning of his spiritual journey. Actually the
judgemental deliberations here represent a piece of
Buddha's teaching about the attainment of panna and
realisation of nibbana through the cultivation of
moral thoughts. It appears that the compilers of the
sutta have intentionally placed the two judgemental
deliberations in the biginning in order to give an
outline of the entire spiritual journey of Gotama upto
the attainment of enlightenment and the ultimate
realisation of nibbana. In fact the sutta ends with
an account of the attainment of bodhi which leads
to nibbAna.
If we now omit the judgemental deliberations,only
the cultivation of mental morality -- not through
this type of judgemental deliberations involving panna
and nibbana -- remains. The remaining part contains
what came to be known as sammA vyAyAma (right exertion)
and sammA sati (right mindfulness). This also explains
why the stock piece of teaching beginning with four
jhAnas came to be added to the First Part. The four
jhAnas belong to the category of sammA samadhi which
follows that of sammA sati according to the Buddhist
tradition of
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eightfold path. It may be concluded that the compilers
of this sutta were influenced by the scheme of
eightfold path developed by the Buddha. We may even
reasonably conclude that the judgemental deliberations
became a part of the First Part after the stock piece
of teaching comprising the four jhAnas, bodhi etc. was
added to the First Part.
Reliability of the tradition in the First Part
What we have discussed before shows that the account
combining the two traditions is of comparatively later
origin. But this does not prove that these two traditions
themselves are of later origin and, therefore, unreliable.
as a source of information about the meditative practices
of Gotama the Bodhisattva. There are,rather, reasons to
believe that the informations contained in the First Part
and the account of the four jhAnas etc. belong to the
earliest strata of the Buddhist tradition. Let us first
discuss the antiquity of the account of the First Part.
The considerations which suggest the antiquity of this
account may be enumerated as follows :-
1) If we compare the First Part of the DvedhA-vitakka-
sutta with the similar accounts given in the other
suttas we find that it is free such typical Buddhist
terms as pancakamaguna, pancanivarana etc. introduced
by Gotama the Buddha in the system of meditation.
(註20) We may also note that the absence of technical
terms like samatha, vipassanA, sammA vyAyamA, sammA
sati also suggests the antiquity of the account of
the First Part.
2) While the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta gives only one method
to eradicate evil thoughts and to cultivate good
thoughts,the Buddha in the Vitakka-santhana-sutta
teaches six such methods.(註21)
3) There is no attempt to glorify Gotama; he is depicted
as a person who is constantly struggling to keep his
mind free from immoral thoughts.
───────────────────────────
20)For example, pabcanIvaraNa is mentioned in the
samabbaphala-sutta, D.I,,p.73, Kandaraka-sutta,M.
IP.347; pabcakAmagunA in Ratthapala-sutta, M.II,p.
74; Ariyapasena-sutta,M.I p.173; Vekhanassa-sutta,
M.II,pp.42 ff.
21)M.I,(PTS. London,1979), 119 ff.
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4) In the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta the two terms byApAda
and vihimsA are distinctly separate and their opposite
mental states are mentioned as abyApada and avihimsA.
In later days byApAda and vihimsA appear to have lost
their distinctiveness, and consequently vihimsA is
dropped. Only vyApada finds mention. Moreover the
term abyApada is later replaced by the typical Buddhist
term mettAcitta.(註22)
The stock piece of teaching consisting of the Second
Part and Third Part of our translation have been
mentioned in many suttas and are mostly free from later
additions. So this should be taken as an authentic
tradition. We may note that the Third Part do not mention
such techical terms as panna or bodhi, though these
concepts are dealt with in this part.
The account of the Bodhisattvas cultivation of the
mental morality,thus, seems to belong to quite an early
strata of tradition, and there is no reason to doubt
its authenticity.
Mental morality and the ZramaNa system of meditation
We have seen that the First Part of the DvedhA-
vitakka-sutta can be taken as a reliable source of
information regarding the meditative practices of
Gotama the Bodhisattva. From the account of the First
Part it appears that the recognition of mental morality
as an indispensable element to be consciously cultivated
for the attainment of bodhi and nibbAna as well as the
method of its cultivation should be regarded as
contributions made by Gotama to the ZramaNa system of
meditation. We think that this idea of the DvedhA-
vitakka-sutta is well founded and can be accepted. It
is true that the Parama-diTThadhamma-nibbAnavAdins
strove to get physically separated from the desirable
objects in order to be free from grief (dukkha) and
experience a pleasant feeling which was to them nibbAna.
But this was only an expedient means to be free from
attachment to desirable objects,
────────────────────────────
22)In many suttas vihimsA has been dropped and only
byApAda is mentioned. For example, D.II,p.269 only
mentions byApAda. Kandaraka-sutta,M.I,p.345 and
samabbaphala-sutta,D.I,p.71 also record byApAda-
dosam(ill-will and hatered) and gives abyApannacittam
as the opposite mental state. In Bhaya-bherava-sutta
(M.I,p.18) mettAcitta is given as the opposite of
byApanna-citta.
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and should be taken as an example of physical morality.
The members of this sect following a type of spiritual
hedonism as their ideal could not have been much
interested in the development of mental morality. As
the tradition is silent on this point, we need not
assume that they did consciously try to develop mental
morality.
In case of the ArupyavAdins the situation is more
complex and less clear. Personal enjoyment of a
pleasant feeling was not the highest goal for them.
Different teachers belonging to this sect attained
different formless mental states, each of which was
deemed to be satisfactory by a particular teacher.
There can be little doubt that they were also trying
to attain that state which is eternally free from grief,
whatever that state might have been called. It is also
certain that none of them had attained bodhi, as each
ofn the teachers considered a formless mental state
to be the highest. They do not have even tried for
bodhi, for they went straight for ArupyasamApattis
after the four rUpa jhAnas.
Again to the Jainas and the Ajivikas the culltivation
of physical moralit and not that of mental morality
was of vital importance. (M I, 238) The Ajivikas valued
kAyabhAvanA and not cittabhAvanA. The MahAsaccaka-sutta
gives us a list of bodily ascetic practices which Gotama
followed at the beginning of his spiritual quest without
paying attention to the mental morality. Bronkhorst
has shown such ascetic practices were followed by the
Jainas.(註23) So the tradition that credits Gotama with
the innovation of purposive cultivation of mental
morality for the sake of higher spiritual stages seems
to be trustworthy.
The shifting of emphasis from physical morality to
mental morality as a factor of spiritual development
as well as the method of cultivation of mental morality
might be regarded as Gotama's contribution to the
ZramaNa culture of India.
Study of the Second Part
According to the tradition preserved in the DvedhA-
vitakka-sutta the two
───────────────────────────
23)MahAsaccaka-sutta,M.I,pp.237-38; Johannes Bronkhorst:
'These two traditions of meditation in Ancient India
(Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1993) pp.1ff,242-46;
Upali-sutta,M I, p.372 ff.
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terms of philosophical import viz. attA and nibbAna,
mentioned in the jhAna formulas of the Parama-diTTha-
dhamma-nibbAnavAdins are absent from the formulas of
the same jhAnas followed by Gotama. These jhAna
formulas were also followed by the ArupyavAdins
teachers under whose direction Gotama for some time
practised spiritual exercises. The term nibbana was
surely dropped by them. This term is missing from the
jhanic formula followed by them. They did not accept
any agreeable feeling as nibbana, so they omitted
nibbana from the jhAna formula, and went beyond the rUpa
jhAnas to attain the ArUpyasamApattis. But they retained
the term atta in their formula, as they had not realised
the truth of anatta. It was the Buddha who must have
dropped the term atta from the rUpa jhAna formulas for
the first time. But it is reasonable to conclude that
while he was practising the rUpa jhAnas as a Bodhisattva
under the direction of his ArupyavAdins teachers, he
followed, like his teachers, a jhAna formula which
included the term atta. The DvedhA-vitakka-sutta
version of the rUpa jhAnas without the term attA does
not,therefore, truly reflect the spiritual strivings
of Gotama the Bodhisattva but represents a later and
perfect version of the jhAna formulas as taught by
Gotama the Buddha. The terms rejected by the Buddha
are all of doctrinal imports, and form a part of the
theory fully accepted by the Parama-diTTha-dhamma-
nibbAnavAdins and partially accepted by the ArupyavAdins.
These terms - atta and nibbAna- represent subjective
interpretation of an actual meditative experience.
It is true that agreeable feelings are truly experienced
in jhAnic states. But to state that atta experiences
these feelings or to hold that each of these experiences
can be equated with the highest nibbAna is a case of
wrong interpretation foisted on a genuine meditative
experience.
The Buddha on the other hand, preserved the rest
of the jhanic formula informing us of the actual
experience one has in this type of meditative state
(i.e. a feeling ), the mental instruments necessary
to enjoy this experience(i.e. concentration of mind,
indifference etc.) as well as the meditative technique
necessary to create the entire jhanic state( i.e.
physical separation from desiarable objects etc.).
This fact leads us to further conclude that the entire
jhanic state sans its subjective interpretation is
conducive to the spiritual goal Gotama aspired to
attain, and that Gotama followed the same meditativbe
technique of merely negating an undesirable mental
state formerly practised by the ArUpyavAdins and
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the Parama-diTThadhamma-nibbAnavAdins.
The Parama-diTThadhamma-nibbAnavAdins remained
attached to the feeling of adukkhamasukham, so they
did not search for higher stages beyond this. The
ArUpyavAdins, on the other hand, did not regard an
agreeable feeling as nibbAna and went beyond the fourth
rUpa jhAna in order to remain absorbed in an infinite
mental state. Later Gotama also rejected vedanA
(feeling) as nibbana, the most desirable goal of
spiritual life, but he did it for a different reason.
As we will see in our discussion of the Third Part, he
became detached from vedanA so that he could remain
fully alert and perfectly mindful of the objective
world.
Study of the Third Part
The Third Part, for the sake of analysis, may be
held to be discussing two different items. The first
item contains a description of a special mental state
which Gotama developed after attaining the fourth rUpa
jhAna. The other item deals with the three types of
knowledges which Gotama attained with the help of this
mental state.
The special Mental State
The specific mental state which is indispensable
for the attainment of the three knowledges has been
described in an identical manner in connection with
all the three types of knowledges mastered by Gotama.
In order to get a clear idea of this mental state of
Gotama we may quote the Pali passage regarding the
attainemnt of the first knowledge : 'So evam samAhite
citte parisuddhe pariyodAte anaGgane vigatUpakkilese.
mudUbhute kammaniye Thite Anejjapatte
pubbenivasanussatinanaya cittam abhininnamesim."
The qualifying words indicating the purity of mind
viz. parisuddhe pariyodAte, anaGgane and vigatUpakkilese
may be taken to mean the purity of thought and
mindfulness. In this connection we may refer to the
phrase 'upekkhA-sati-pArisuddhi' in the fourth jhAna
formula(註24) where upekkhA means indifference to the
feelings of dukkha and sukha(註25). Again Gotama's
mental
──────────────────────────
24)See,p. 463 of Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No.8, 1995.
25)Ibid. p.475.
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concentration and mindfulness are also, indicated by
such terms as samAhite, Thite, and Anejjapatte. The
adjective 'mudUbhute' should indicate the characteristic
of non-attachment, for only when the mind is free from
all attachment, it can be flexible and directed towards
any object of choice.
The mental characteristics of purity, concentration,
non-attachment, and the pliant nature of mind indicated
in the above mentioned passage all contribute to the
perfection of mindfulness.26 It is the pure mindfulness
that is most important for knowing the true nature of
the conditioned.27 In this connection we may note the
verbal form 'abhininnAmesim' which means 'bent(the
mind)towards' or 'directed(the mind) towards'. In other
words the use of the verbal form 'abhininnamesim' does
not indicate mental absorption in an object but it
means paying attention to the object under observation,
being mindful of the object.
───────────────────────────
26)In course of the four rUpa jhanas the reaction to any
object has been gradually reduced to the enjoyment of
the feeling(vedanA) of adukkhamasukham in the fourth
rUpa jhAna.The moment one gets detached from this
vedanA one becomes free from the influence of the
Conditioned. Consequently his knowing faculty of
perfect mindfulness becomes the fittest instrument
to gain insight into the true nature of the
Conditioned. The Parama-diTThadhamma-nibbAnavAdins
claimed that they experienced the perfection of
mindfulness through indifference(upekkhA-sati-
parisuddhi) in the fourth rUpa jhana. Gotama as a
bodhisattva also experienced this state in the
fourth jhana. But in this state a sramana remains
attached to the vedana of adukkhamasukham.
Indifference only refers to the feelings of dukkha
aqnd sukha. So the purification of mindfulness is
not perfect and therefore the Parama-ditthadhamma-
nibbAnAvadins could not attain the special mental
state. Gotama saw fear in this vedanA and became
detached from it, So he was no longer influenced
by it(see,Mahasaccaka-sutta,M.I,pp.242-43,247-49;
SangArava-sutta, M.II, p.212; CulatanhAsankhaya-
sutta,M.I, p.255). Consequently the purification
of mindfulness became really perfect in case of
Gotama and he attained bodhi.This mindfulness is
anuttarAupekkha-sati-parisuddhi in contrast to the
upekkha-sati-parisuddhi of the fourth rupa jhana.
For reference, see the next note.
27)The Sekha-sutta,M.I,pp.357-58 states that one attains
the three knowledges through the anuttarAupekkhA-
sati-pArisuddhi.
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In the Maha-vedalla-sutta (MI, No.43) also we
read of panna as a mental state that leads to direct
and complete knowledge. "Intellect(panna) is indeed
for the sake of direct knowledge, complete knowledge
and for the sake of abandoning" ( panna kho....
abhiJJattha pariJJattha pahanattha ti). By panna one
not only gains complete knowledge but also gives up
what is conditioned. By the eye of intellect
(pannacakkhu) one can know any knowable (neyya-dhamma).
The difference between panna and vinnana is that
panna is to be developed while viJJAna is to be
understood(panna bhAvetabbA vinnAnam parinneyam).
Panna as a factor of the path is to be cultivated
ViJJAna as one of the five agreegates is already there,
it is to be understood as anicca,dukkha and anatta.
It is thus obvious that panna here has been described
as a mental state, as a faculty of mind which is
necessary for attaining the true knowledge of the
conditioned. Is it this panna which has been mentioned
in the DvedhA-vitakka-sutta as a mental state necessary
for the attainment of true knowledge.
The panna is a mental state which is conducive
to the intellectual investigation into the true nature
of the Conditioned. It gradually destroys attachment
for the Conditioned, and thus helps to realise bodhi
or insight into the true nature of the object observed.
In the Mahavedalla-sutta no specific mention is made
of sati in connection with panna, not to speak of the
'supreme mindfulness through indifference' which is a
characteristic of the special mental state described
in the Dvedhavitakka-sutta.(註28) So these two mental
states are not identical.
Again we have seen in the same sutta that this
special mental state not only leads the bodhi( i.e.
the third vijja) but also to the first two vijjas.
In the Samannaphala-sutta (註29) we read that the
same mental state is necessary also for the
attainment of iddhis and abhinnas. But panna is
not connected with any of these iddhis and abhinnas.
The Susima section of the Samyutta Nikaya states
(註30) that the arhats who were pannavimutto
(liberated through panna) also had bodhi
───────────────────────
28)See,pp.20-21 and notes no 26,27 of the present
article.
29)D.I (PTS, London,1975) pp.76-84.
30) S.N.II(PTS,London,1970) pp.119-27.
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and the same knowledge of liberation,viz. birth is
destroyed etc. but they do not possess the iddhis
or the two vijjas or any other abhinna. They told
that they do not possess these specisl knowledges
or powers for they are liberated through panna. By
liberation is meant the liberation due to the
realisation of bodhi, for they are talking of
pannavimutti only after stating that they have bodhi.
It is the bodhi which has liberated them from the
cycle of repeated births and deaths.
Gotama also had realised the bodhi and attained
the same knowledge of liberation, but before this he
had already attained the special mental state after
the fourth rupa jhana and the two other vijjas through
it. We may therefore conclude that this special mental
state is different from the mental state of panna and
that he was following a path of liberation which is
different from the path of pannavimutti. Here in the
Dvedhavitakka-sutta we have one of the earliest
accounts describing what came to be known as
cetovimutti (註31) in a comparatively later period.
The question that arises is why NikAya -Agama
tradition always records the development of a special
mental state and the attainment of perfect knowledge
after the attainment of the fourth rUpa jhAna. The
solution to this problem emerges if we pay attention
to the mental state and the mode of application of
it for the attainment of true knowledge. This mental
state is characterised by freedom from attachment,
perfect mindfulness and mental concentration.This
is exactly the mental state a person would have if
he attains the fourth jhAna or any other samApatti
higher than the fourth jhAna, and yet remains
unattached to the vedanA.So it was not necessary to
attain any higher formless samApatti for the sake of
developing this mental state.(註32)
─────────────────────────
31)By cetovimutti one also attains pannavimutti(see,
Sekha-sutta, M I,357),but by realising pannavimutti
one does not automatically attain ceto-vimutti.
32)See,note no. 26. Also note that in any ArUpyasamApatti
a meditator experiences one of the infinite mental
states and the rest of the Conditioned is not
perceived.When out of such a samApatti trance he
still remains attached to that mental state as the
highest attainable release from dukkha. So neither
is it possible for him to go beyond that mental state
nor can he attain the special mental state. In order
to attain this state he must give up attachment this
state to that infinite mental state. But he can
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As for the application of this mental state in
order to attain complete knowledge it is only
necessary that it should be directed towards the
object under observation. In order to gain insight
into the true nature of an object only mindfulness
is necessary in case of a person having this mental
state.
For the Parama-diTTha-dhamma-nibbAnavAdins and
the followers of the formless samApattis it was not
possible to develop this mental state. To the former
, the enjoyment of an agreeable feeling was the most
desirable goal while the latter discarded vedana as
the desired goal but still regarded absorption into
an infinite formless state as the highest spiritual
goal. They do not appear to have any interest in
gaining insight into the true nature of things. They
were interested in creating a mental state which was
free from the experience of dukkha. So it was not
possible for the followers of the rUpa jhAnas and
the formless mental states to develop this mental
state which is not attached to anythiong but is
mindful of everything.(註33)
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also attain this state just after the fourth rUpa
jhAna by giving up attachment to vedanA. So it is
not necessary to practise the ArUpyasamApattis after
the rUpa jhAnas for the sake of attaining this
special mental state.
33)It should be noted, that the realisation of nibbAna
in this very world is always associated with the
ArupyasamApattis, and never recorded after the four
rUpa jhAnas. The nibbAnic experience always comes
after the samApatti of nevasabbAnasabbayatana in
the form of sabba-vedayita-nirodha samApatti. For
example,see Anupada-sutta(M.III,pp.25-28, Latukipamo
sutta (M.I,pp.455-56). In AriyapariyesanA-sutta
(M.I,167) the realisation of nibbAnic consciousness
is recorded in place of sabbA-vedayita-nirodha
samapatti. The reason for such a tradition is that
in nibbana no trace of the Conditioned remains.
So pabbA which remains mindful of anything
conditioned and reveals its true nature cannot be
the immediate cause of the realisation of nibbana.
On the other hand, in ArupyasamApattis one gradually
gets rid of the impressions of the Conditioned from
the consciousness. In the NevasabbAnasabbAyatana
samApatti only a slight trace of the perception
still remains. When that perception is wiped out
in the sabbA-vedayita-nirodha samapatti, no trace
of the Conditioned remains. In this trance state
the Condition does not exist for the meditator and
he has the experience of nibbAna, the Uncnditioned.
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Three knowledges
Gotama applied the special mental state to three
different phenomena and obtained one after another
three different knowledges in the first, middle, and
last watches of the same night. Although all these
knowledges are obtained with the help of the mental
state this by merely being mindful of the three
different knowable objects, these knowledges, as
it will be shown later, do not belong to the same
category. Whether Gotama obtained these knowledges
in the same night or not, we need not doubt that he
obtained the first two knowledges before his
enlightment.
The first knowledge (pathama vijja) obtained by
Gotama regarding the recollection of the various
details of his past life is similar to the knowledge
gained in meditation by the ascetics who later preached
the philosophy of eternalism(sasvatavAda). The second
knowledge (dutiya vijjA) on the other hand, is beyond
the range of the sasvatavadins and deals with the
repeated deaths and rebirths(cutupapatanana) of other
beings according to the law of karma. This knowledge
could have been realised by other ascetics also
provided they had the knowledge of karma and rebirth,
e.g. the Jainas. These first two knowledges cannot be
regarded as belonging to the category of bodhi or the
third knowledge as they do not teach the truth of
anatta.
The way the three vijjAs are obtained shows that
the three vijjAs are independent of each other. So
the path to enlightenment need not include the first
two vijjAs. This, however, does not prove that these
two vijjAs are later additions to the sutta or that
Gotama the Bodhisattva did not realise them. We may
be sure that according to the earliest traceable
tradition these two vijjAs were mastered by Gotama
before enlightenment and not after enlightenment,
for such is the unanimous testimonty of the different
suttas.
The sutta now proceeds to give an account of the
knowledge regarding the defilements. It states that
Gotama bent his mind towards the knowledge of the
destruction of defilements (asavanam khayananam).
Then suddenly the topic of the knowledge of dukkha
in all its details is discussed. Next again the original
topic of asavanam khayananam is followed and completed.
It is obvious that the topic of dukkha is a later
interpolation. The description of the attainment of
the
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knowledge of destruction of the Asavas (defilements)
brings out quite clearly the Buddhist point of view.
The knowledge of destruction of the Asavas is
divided into four units : 1) existence of Asava , 2)
its origin, 3) its cessation and 4) the path leading
to its cessation. Each of these knowledges he knew
as it really is (yathabhutam abbhannasim). The
expression yathabhutam abbhannasim conveys that the
knowledge obtained by Gotama is pure objective
knowledge of the existing phenomena without any
subjective colouring. The account moreover shows
that to destroy asava utterly one must first have have
a clear,distinct knowledge of the existence of asava
in mind and then the knowledge of the other three
units one after another. Here Gotama was not practising
adverse criticism of asava in order to stop the arising
of Asava; he was trying to gain analytical, systematic
and objective knowledge of Asavas in order to destroy
them. This knowledge is called bodhi or sambodhi in
other suttas.34 It is because of this knowledge
Gotama destroyed Asavas and he again knew that the
asavas had been destroyed.
By going for and attaining bodhi with the help of
a special mental state Gotama completely broke away
from the trodden path of the ZramaNas and revolutionised
the spiritual world of the ZramaNas. To the Parama-
diTTha-dhamma-nibbAnavAdins and the ArupyavAdins the
Conditioned was not frightful and the highest goal
of the spiritual life viz. the freedom from dukkha,
is to be realised within the Conditioned. The Parama
-diTTha-dhamma-nibbAnavAdins accepted an agreeable
feeling (vedana) as nibbana while the Arupyavadins
were satisfied with one or the other infinite mental
stae. To Gotama the absolute end of dukkha lies beyond
the Conditioned. Attachment to the Condition is a source
of danger. Non-attachment to everything conditioned
ultimately led to the realisation of nirvana, the
supreme security in the freedom from bondage to the
Conditioned. The path to the freedom from dukkha ran
not through the enjoyment
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34)In this connection we may note that in D.III,p.134
(PTS. London,1976) the declaration 'birth is
destoryed ......' is called 'bodhija', born of
enlightenment. According to the Mahasaccaka-sutta
(M I, pp. 246-49) the third vijjA was called "bodhi".
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of the Conditioned but through the proper
understanding of the nature of the Conditioned. It
is Gotama who for the first time properly understood
the role of mindfulness and the mental elements
essential for the proper development of mindfulness
viz. concentration and non-attacment, in the
realisation of enlightenment. The bodhi or the
analytical, objective knowledge can be realised only
in a state of perfect mindfulness and not in a state
of trance.
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論四禪---喬達摩菩薩轡何改定此一佛教前已有的法門(下)
穆克紀
中華佛學研究所客座教授
提要
本文主要透過《雙念經》(Dvedhavitakka-sutta)的
研究以評估喬達摩（Gotama）於菩薩時期對於沙門禪修體
系的貢獻。整部經是二篇不同教說的組合體，其一為文中
所譯資料的第一部份，另外是第二和第三部份。
資料的第一部份呈現出二種傳承的混融，傳承之一是
佛陀關於二類心念的教說，第二種述說喬達摩於菩薩時期
對於這二類心念的實際奮鬥過程。依據第二種傳承，喬達
摩對欲念、□念、害念諸種惡念進行負面批評（ adversely
criticising），因而捨棄諸種惡念；然後透過正面評價以
開發相對的出離念、無□念、無害念三種善念。負面批評
和正面評價二者的內容分別是關於善念和惡念之有利影響
和有害影響，並且與般若（panna）、涅槃（nibbana）沒
有關連。
第一部份原本為一篇獨立的教說，而且不能視為第二
和第三部份的前行序章。但我們沒有理由懷疑在包含於第
一部份的傳承中，喬達摩重視意戒甚於身戒的真實性，這
是喬達摩偏離於傳統沙門禪定修習的一點。
第二和第三部份說明喬達摩修習以獲得覺悟（bodhi）
和其他諸明（vijja）的禪修體系。四種色禪（rupa jhana）
是此體系的重要組成部份。他依循的禪定公式（jhana
formular）略去了發現於最上現法涅槃論者
（Parama-ditthadhammanibbanavadin）之色禪公式中的
「最上現法涅槃」一詞，這項改變最早是由修習無色定
（Arupya-samapatti）的苦行者所提出的，後來喬達摩接
受了這項改變，公式的其他部份則保留不變。「我」（atta）
一詞是後來喬達摩成佛之後，於說法時捨去。這顯示了喬
達摩依循傳統的禪修方法，並且獲得相同於先前由其他沙
門所體證到的禪定狀態，但他對禪定狀態的評估有所不同。
他像無色禪者（Arupyavadin） 一樣，拒絕了將各種樂受
（vedana）作為涅槃最終極的精神目標的解釋，相反地，
他只重視淨念等心靈特質，它們能夠讓他在第四禪中經驗
到不苦不樂的捨受。他正確地辨識出這種禪定狀態為到達
較高精神目標的方法。
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他不重視任何暫時離苦的主觀快樂經驗，所以他能夠
捨棄對不苦不樂受的執著，但不像無色禪者一樣，他並未
進入空無邊處等禪定狀態。因此，他保持的心靈狀態是捨
棄對任何所觀對象之心靈反應的執著，因而是完全覺醒的，
全然專注的。這種心靈狀態是對沙門文化的特殊貢獻，而
且是他最重視者。
他應用這種心靈狀態以獲得三明（vijja）， 其中之
一是覺悟（bodhi）完滿的智慧。 覺悟的第一種表達是關
於漏（asrava）之絕對客觀的和完全的了知，這種了知使
他脫離一再重覆的生死輪迴，而且他知道自己已獲得解脫，
永不再生。喬達摩獲得的這種解脫可以稱為「心解脫」
（cetovimutti）。
透過特定的心靈狀態之助，以趨進和獲致覺悟，喬達
摩完全離開了沙門們走過的道路，並且革新了沙門的精神
世界。
關鍵詞:1.特殊的心靈狀態 2.三明 3.慧解脫 4.心解脫