.
p.331
Abstract
Ch'eng-kuan (738-839), the fourth patriarch of
the Hua-yen school devided the introduction -- titled
Hsan-t'an -- to his commentaries on Hua-yen-ching
into ten sections. These sections can be found in his
predecessors' commentaries on Hua-yen-ching, but the
names and the succesion of the ten sections are
different in their works. Ch'eng-kuan made two
significant changes in his system: 1. the tripi.taka
and the teachings are placed side by side in the
second section 2. the division of doctrines is taken
from the ninth section to the third, next to the
tripi.taka and teachings. Moreover, Ch'eng-kuan was
the first who attempted to give reasons for the
succesion of ten sections. He starts from the
Buddhist teaching in general and arrives at the
explication of the text of the suutra. This must be
the reason why he placed the division of doctrines
right after the discussion of different branches of
Buddhist teaching.
Ch'eng-kuan discusses the perfect teaching, the
teaching of the Hua-yen school in the third section,
the division of doctrines. He devides this section
into four parts:
I. The support of essence and phenomena;
II. The reversion of everything to reality;
III. The clarification of non-obstruction;
IV. Total pervasion and accommodation.
p.332
These four parts can be related to the four
dharma-dhaatus. The first corresponds to the
dharma-dhaatu of phenomena, the second to the
dharma-dhaatu of principle, the third to the
dharma-dhaatu of non-obstruction of principle and
phenomena, and the fourth to the dharma-dhaatu of
non-obstruction of phenomena and phenomena. In his
discussion of perfect teaching he made a synthesis of
Discernment of Dharma-dhaatu with Fa-tsang's ten
profound principles. In our analysis of the text, we
have shed light on his several borrowings from
Hui-yan. Despite his strong criticism against
Hui-yan, he is, certainly, indebted to him.
p.333
Ch'eng-kuan's commentaries on the Hua-yen-ching
Ch'eng-kuan (738-839)(1), the fourth patriarch of
the Hua-yen school of Chinese Buddhism was a prolific
writer, and his most important and voluminous works
are his commentaries on the Hua-yen-ching Yg.(2)
His commentary on the eighty-fascicle Hua-yen-ching
is titled Ta-fang kuang-fo Hua-yen-ching shu js
Yg (T vol. 35, no. 1735. hereafter:
Commentary).(3) This text seemed to be too profound
and terse to the audience, so his disciples recorded
his explanation of it. This subcommentary is called
Ta-fang kuang-fo Hua-yen-ching sui-shu yen-i ch'ao j
sYgHtqr (T vol.36, no.1736. hereafter:
Subcommentary).(4) On an imperial order, he also
authored a commentary on the forty-fascicle
Hua-yen-ching, which is actually a translation of the
last chapter of the Avata.msaka suutra, Ga.n.davyuuha
suutra, done by Praj~naa in the years 796-798
_____________________________________________________
(1) For the best modern treatment of his biography,
see Kamata Shigeo, Chuugoku kegon no shisoshi
no kenkyuu. Tokyo: Tokyo ߃q daigaku shuppankai,
1965, 158-169. For an English summary of it, see
Peter N. Gregory, Tsung-mi and the Sinification
of Buddhism. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1991, 58-68.
(2) The Avata.msaka suutra was translated into
Chinese three times: first by Buddhabhadra in
418- 422 (it became known as the sixty-fascicle
Hua-yen-ching), then by 'Sik.saananda in 695-699
(eighty-fascicle Hua-yen-ching), and lastly by
Praj~naa in 796-798. (fourty-fascicle Hua-yen-
ching); see. Gregory, Tsung-mi. 9, 62.
(3) According to Ch'eng-kuan's biographies he wrote
his commentary during 784-787, when he stayed on
Wu-t'ai-shan, see Sung kao-seng chuan T
2061: 50.737b7-8; Miao-cheh t'a-chi ıO,
Kamata, Chuugoku kegon. 158. (Kamata edited the
text of Ch'eng-kuan's stuupa inscription in this
book); However, Ch'eng-kuan himself seems to
contradict this statement, in the course of
describing the circumstances under which he
traveled to Wu-t'ai- shan, he says: "I wrote the
Commentary for fifteen years, and I stayed here
[on Wu-t'ai-shan] for ten years." T 1736:
36.601a16-17. It means that he started to compose
his Commentary five years before his arrival at
Wu-t'ai-shan, for he is said to have finished his
work there. The Commentary is said to be of
twenty fascicles (chou b ) , but the text
included in the Taisho edition consists of sixty
fascicles (chan ). This contradiction is
solved by the manuscript possessed by the
Kanazawa Libray. This manuscript consists of
twenty facsicles, and each fascicle is divided
into an upper (shang W )and a lower (hsia U
)part. See Takahashi Shuuei, Roku Chogen ga
senjutsushita Daihoko butsu kegongyo sho jo ni
tsuite. Kanazawa Bunko kenkyuu 11(1975):15-18.
(4) The Miao-cheh t'a-chi reports that Seng-jui
and Chih-k'ai _ wrote down the Subcommentary
in forty fascicles and also another work titled
Sui-wen shou-ching H in hundred fascicles,
the latter of which unfortunately has not
survived.
p.334
and assisted by Ch'eng-kuan.(5) The title of this
commentary, Hua-yen-ching hsing- yan p'in-shu Yg
@~ (HTC vol. 7. hereafter: New Commentary)
refers to the text, P'u-hsien hsing-yan p'in
@~, which Praj~naa included at the end of his
translation.
The introduction to the commentary on Hua-yen-ching
The introduction to the Commentary and
Subcommentary was called hsan-t'an Ƚ or a
first by Ch'eng-kuan,(6) and later his introduction
was edited as a separate book titled Hua-yen
shu-ch'ao hsan-t'an YrȽ (HTC vol. 8.
hereafter Introduction). The Introduction consists of
ten sections.(7) The first section explains the
circumstances of establishing the teachings (chiao-
ch'i yin-yan а_]t ), clarifying ten causes (yin
] )and ten conditions (yan t ). The second
section, the contents of the tripi.taka and teachings
(tsang-chiao so-she ñЩ )treats the contents of
the tripitaka and the Indian and Chinese masters'
various classification systems of Buddhist teachings.
The third section, the division of doctrines (i-li
fen-chi qz )summarizes the doctrines of perfect
teaching, i.e. Hua-yen. The fourth section describes
the ability of those living beings who can understand
the teachings (chiao-so pei-chi ЩҳQ ). The fifth
section, the different levels of teaching (chiao-t'i
ch'ien-shen L` ) , discusses the Buddhist
teachings from Hiinayaana to Hua-yen. The sixth
section explains the cardinal purport of the
Hua-yen-ching according to various schools of
Buddhism and especially the Hua-yen school
(tsung-ch' t'ung-ch vq
_____________________________________________________
(5) In the colophon of the forty-fascicle
Hua-yen-ching, Ch'eng-kuan is mentioned as a
participant of translation; see T 279: 10.848c26.
(6) In the Subcommentary, Ch'eng-kuan applies the
term "hsan-t'an", when he refers to the
introduction, saying "I have discussed it in the
hsan-t'an"; see T 1736: 36.234b17; 248a24;
449b18.
(7) For the introduction in the Commentary and the
Subcommentary, T 1735: 35.503c6-528b18; 1736:
36.18c11-129a7.
p.335
) .(8) The seventh section, the versions and
chapters (pu-lei p'in-hui ~| ) lists the
different versions and the chapters of the
Hua-yen-ching, and those chapters which survive as
separate works, as well as the Indian and Chinese
commentaries on it. The eighth section, the
translations (ch'uan-i kan-t'ung ĶPq ), gives
information on the translators' names, the date and
the length of translations of Hua-yen-ching, and
describes the "wonderous" events which occurred
during the time the translations were executed. The
ninth section, the general explanation of the title
of the Hua-yen-ching (tsung-shih ming-t'i `W ),
explicates the seven characters of the title one by
one and together. The tenth section, the various
divisions of the text (pieh-chieh wen-i OѤq ),
explains how different masters divided the
Hua-yen-ching into parts.
However, this introduction to the Buddhist and
especially Hua-yen teachings was not Ch'eng-kuan's
invention, for it can be found in his predecessors'
commentaries on Hua-yen-ching. The names and the
succession of the ten sections are different in their
works.(9) The introduction can be traced back to the
second patriarch of Hua-yen school, Chih-yen k
(602-668), who took up five points in his commentary
(Ta-fang kuang-fo Hua-yen-ching shou-hsan fen-ch'i
t'ung-chih fang-kuei jsYgjȤqy T
vol. 35. no. 1732.) , (10) which correspond to
Ch'eng-kuan's first, second, sixth, ninth and tenth
sections. The ten sections first appear in Fa-tsang's
(643-712) commentary (Hua- yen-ching t'an-hsan chi
YgȰO T vol. 35. no. 1733.). Fa-tsang does not
treat the tripi.taka and the teachings together, like
Ch'eng-kuan, but first he discusses the tripi.taka in
the second section, and then turns to the teachings
in the
_____________________________________________________
(8) For a discussion of what the Hua-yen masters
regarded as the cardinal purport of the Hua-yen-
ching, see Kimura Kiyotaka, Kegongy shuushuron no
rekishi to imi. Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyuu 19,1
(1970):255-262.
(9) For a comparitive table of different names
without those of the New Commentary, see Sakamoto
Yukio, Kegon kyogaku no kenkyuu. Tokyo:
Heirakuji, 1964. 58-59. My article also includes
a table extended with the names appearing in the
New Commentary.
(10) For a brief summary of this work, see Robert M.
Gimello, Chih-yen and the Foundation of Hua-yen
Buddhism. Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia
University. 1976, 532/534.
p.336
third section. In contrast to Ch'eng-kuan, the
division of doctrines, the versions and chapters and
the general explanation of the title are the ninth,
eighth, and seventh sections, respectively. Hui-yan
zb (673-743) followed his master, Fa- tsang, in
that he discusses the tripi8aka and the teachings
separately in the second and third section,
respectively in his commentary (Hs Hua-yen-ching
leh-shu k'an-ting-chi YgZwO HTC vol.
5.).(11) The division of the doctrines is the seventh
section, and the versions with the translations
together are the eighth one. Ch'eng-kuan certainly
took Hui-yan as his model when he also constructed
the names of sections out of four characters, which
better fits the structure of Chinese language.
Consequently, Ch'eng-kuan made two significant
changes in his system: 1. the tripi.taka and the
teachings are placed side by side in the second
section 2. the division of doctrines is taken from
the ninth section to the third, next to the
tripi.taka and teachings. Ch'eng-kuan was the first
who attempted to give reasons for the succesion of
ten sections.(12) He starts from the Buddhist
teaching in general and arrives at the explication of
the text of the suutra. This must be the reason why
he placed the division of doctrines right after the
discussion of different branches of Buddhist
teaching.
In the New Commentary, the tripi.taka is left out
from the second section, the different levels of
teaching and the central concept of Hua-yen-ching are
the sixth and fourth sections, respectively. The most
important modifications are the omission of the
description of those who can and cannot understand
the teaching, and the addition of the levels of
cultivation and realization (hsiu-cheng ch'ien-shen
ҲL` ).(13) The inclusion of this new section
must be attributed to the increasing influence of
Ch'an on the religious life of the second half of
T'ang period. In this new section, he discusses the
sudden and gradual enlightenment
_____________________________________________________
(11) HTC 5.1a9-56a12.
(12) T 36, 1736: 18c14-19a6; for a discussion of
succession, see Sakamoto, Kegon kyogaku. 59-
63.
(13) HTC 7.472a9-518a11.
p.337
(tun-wu chien-wu y ) .(14) The New
Commentary comments on the last chapter of the Hua-
yen-ching, therefore the section "cardinal purport of
the suutra" also includes a detailed explication of
the Chinese title of the last chapter, Entering into
the Dharma-dhaatu (Ju fa-chieh Jk ). In the
Commentary and the Subcommentary shorter versions of
this explication can be found at the beginning of the
actual commentary on this chapter.
The lay Hua-yen devout, Liu T'ung-hsan (635-730)
also included an introduction to his commentary on
Hua-yen-ching, but, though it is based on the
previous Hua-yen masters' text, its ten sections are
rather different from theirs, therefore, we do not
take it into account here.(15) Liu's divergence from
Chih-yen and Fa-tsang seems to substantiate Kojima
Taizan's view that Liu T'ung-hsan represented a
different kind of Hua-yen lineage.(17)
The division of doctrines
Ch'eng-kuan discusses the perfect teaching, the
teaching of the Hua-yen school in the third section,
the division of doctrines.(18) In the following, we
shall
_____________________________________________________
(14) For Ch'eng-kuan's view on sudden teaching, see
Yoshizu Yoshihide, Tonkyo ni taisuru Chokan no
kaishaku ni tsuite. Sh2gaku Kenkyuu 23(1981):
209-214. For a Japanese translation of this
section, see Yoshizu Yoshihide, Chokan no kegon
kyogaku to zenshuu. Toyo Bunka Kenkyuujo Kiyo
97(1985): 45/5. or Kegon zen no shisoshi-teki
kenkyuu. Tokyo: Daito shuppansha, 1985,
253/259.
(15) For the names of his ten sections, see Hsin
Hua-yen-ching lun sYg T 36,
1739:721b20-24.
(16) For a summary of Liu T'ung-hsan's biography
and works, see Robert M. Gimello, Liu T'ung-
hsan and the practical Dimensions of Hua-yen.
in: Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen, ed. by Robert
M. Gimello, Honolulu: Univeristy of Hawaii
Press, 1983, 321-389.
(17) Kojima argues that Chih-yen, Fa-tsang and
Hui-yan belonged to the Chung-nan-shan ns
lineage, while Liu T'ung-Hsan to the
Wu-t'ai-shan lineage. The masters of the former
lineage developed a highly sophisticated
philosophy, while the masters of latter lineage
spread their teachings among populace.
Ch'eng-kuan unified these lineages, composing
the theory of four dharma-dhaatus, in which
both non-obstruction of phenomena advocated by
Fa-tsang and non-obstruction of principle and
phenomena stressed by Liu T'ung-hsan are
included. Kojima's theory is published in
several articles; for further references, see
Kojima Taizan, Aratanaru Chuugoku kegon
shisoshi. Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyuu 39
(1991): 83-87.
(18) For this section, see Commentary T 1735:
35.514a4-517c13; Subcommentary T 1736:
36.70b20- 88c4; Introduction HTC
8.523b10-573a8; New Commentary HTC 7.487a16-
p.338
investigate the structure of this section and try to
define which elements are borrowed from his
predecessors and to what extent he diverged from the
previous commentaries, and which new teachings he
introduced or emphasized more than earlier Hua-yen
masters.
Ch'eng-kuan first elucidates the meaning of one
vehicle of distinct teaching (pieh-chiao i-sheng O
@ )and one vehicle of common teaching (t'ung-chiao
i-sheng PФ@ ).(19) In the Subcommentary, he
claims the following difference between the two
teachings:
"The common teaching is the final teaching of
Mahaayaana and the sudden teaching. Although they
profess one-nature and one-mark, and not two or
three, they do not declare the perfect integrity of
merit (yan-jung ch-te Ĩw ) and the
non-obstruction of phenomena, therefore they are not
called distinct teaching. On the other hand, the
one-nature, the one-mark, the non-obstruction of
principle and phenomena and the transcendence of
thought can also be found in the distinct teaching,
therefore it is common with those two teachings."(20)
He continues with a division of this section into
four parts:
I. The support of essence and phenomena (so-i
t'i-shih Ҩ );
II. The reversion of everything to reality (tsung
she-kuei chen-shih `ku );
III. The clarification of non-obstruction (chang
ch'i wu-ai Lê );
IV. Total pervasion and accommodation (chou-pien
han-jung PMte ).
These four parts can be related to the four
dharma-dhaatus. The first corresponds to the
dharma-dhaatu of phenomena, the second to the
dharma-dhaatu
_____________________________________________________
496b14. For a summary of this section in
Commentary, see Sakamoto Yukio, Hokkai engi
rekishi teki keisei. in: Bukkyo no konpon
shinri, ed. Miyamoto Shoson, Tokyo: Sanseido,
1957,
904-932.
(19) According to Fa-tsang, the distinct teaching of
one vehicle is superior to the common teaching
of one vehicle, for the common teaching
declares the final identity of the three
vehicles, while the distinct teaching claims
the superiority of one vehicle; see Liu
Ming-wood, The Lotus Suutra and the Garland
Suutra According to the Tien-t'ai and Hua-yen
Schools in Chinese Buddhism. T'oung Pao
74(1988): 68-74.
(20) T 1736: 36.71a1-4.
p.339
of principle, the third to the dharma-dhaatu of
non-obstruction of principle and phenomena, and the
fourth to the dharma-dhaatu of non-obstruction of
phenomena and phenomena.(21)
The first part includes ten pairs: 1. teaching
and doctrine (chiao-i иq ); 2. principle and
phenomena (li-shih z ); 3. object and wisdom
(ching-chih Ҵ ); 4. practice and stage (hsing-wei
); 5. cause and result (yin-kuo ]G ); 6. the
primary and secondary conditions of rebirth (i-cheng
̥ ); 7. essence and function (t'i-yung ); 8.
man and dharma (jen-fa Hk ); 9. resistance and
conformity (ni-shun f ); 10. emotion and response
(kan-ying P ). The antecedents of these pairs can
be detected in Chih-yen's commentary. He states that
the ten profound principles, which are the
innovations of Hua-yen school, have the following ten
pairs:(22) 1. teaching and doctrine (chiao-i иq );
2. principle and phenomena (li-shih z ); 3.
comprehension and practice (chieh-hsing Ѧ ); 4.
cause and reason (yin-kuo ]G ); 5. man and dharma
(jen-fa Hk ); 6 distinctions among objects and
stages of religious practice (fen-ch'i ching-wei
Ҧ ); 7. the teaching of the masters and wisdom of
the students (fa-chih shih- ti kv )8. the
primary and the secondary, the chief and the
subordinate (chu-pan i-cheng D̥ ); 9. freedom
of resistance and conformity, essence and function
(ni-shun t'i-yung tzu-tsai fΦۦb ) ; 10.
manifestation in accordance with the capacity of
listeners (sui-sheng ken-y shih-hsien Hͮڱܲ{
). Fa-tsang adopts these ten pairs in his explanation
of ten profound principles; but their sequence is not
fixed, he lists them in different order in two
passages.(23) However, in his commentary on
Hua-yen-ching the ten pairs he
_____________________________________________________
(21) See Yoshizu, Chokan no kegon. 28; and Kegon
zen. 234-235. For a summary of the four
dharma-dhaatu, see my forthcoming article:
Ch'eng-kuan's Theory of Four Dharma-dhaatus.
(22) T 1735: 35.15b2-5; Kamata, Ch2goku kegon. 550.
(23) Hua-yen-ching wen-i kang-mu Ygq T
1734: 35.501b23-26; Hua-yen i-sheng chiao-i
fen-ch'i chang Y@иq T 1866:
45.505a1-9. For a treatment of these pairs
elaborated by Fa-tsang, see Ike Kaname, Kegon
ni okeru juugimon setsu ni tsuite - tokuni Hozo
o chuushin to shite. Indogaku Bukkyogaku
Kenkyuu 37,1(1988): 126-128.
p.340
mentions are identical with those of Ch'eng-kuan,
with the exception that the third pair is
comprehension and practice.(24)
Not in connection with the profound principles,
but with the topics that the Hua-yen-ching touches
upon Chih-yen also gives five pairs resembling the
ten pairs.(25) These are: 1. man and dharma (jen-fa
Hk ); 2. principle and phenomena (li-shih z );
3. doctrine and text (i-wen q ); 4. comprehension
and practice (chieh-hsing Ѧ ); 5. cause and result
(yin-kuo ]G ). Fa-tsang, discussing the cardinal
purport of the Hua-yen-ching, also lists five pairs
(teaching and doctrine, principle and phenomena,
object and wisdom, practice and stages, cause and
result), but in another passage he enumerates ten
pairs completely identical with those of Ch'eng-kuan.
The conclusion can be drawn that Ch'eng-kuan borrowed
the ten pairs from here, and he transplanted them
into the context of ten profound principles.
The name of the first part, the support of
essence and phenomena, must have originated from
Hui-yan who divided the section "the division of
doctrines" into three parts: 1. essence and phenomena
(t'i-shih ); 2. merit (te- hsiang w ); 3. the
function of karma (yeh-yung ~ ). "The essence and
phenomena" comprises both purity and impurity. It can
be the support (so-i Ҩ ) of merit because of its
purity; and it can be the support of the function of
karma because of its impurity.(26) Ch'eng-kuan goes
further, claiming that the "essence and phenomena" is
the support of the ten profound principles
(shih-hsan so-i t'i- shih QȩҨ ) .(27)
Hui-yan's definition is largely indebted to the
Awakening of Faith in Mah`y`na which advocates that
one-mind has both pure and impure aspects.(28) In
contrast with that, Ch'eng-kuan applies the category
"essence and
_____________________________________________________
(24) T 1735: 35.123c6-8.
(25) Hua-yen-ching nei-chang men-teng li k'ung-mu
chang Ygեس T 1870:
45.536c22-23.
(26) HTC 5.42a16-b1.
(27) T 1736: 36.71b28-29.
(28) The Awakening of Faith in Mahaayaana (Ta-sheng
ch'i-hsin-lun j_H T 1666, 1667: 32.) is
a very influential work on the formation of
Chinese Yogaacaara philosophy, but its
p.341
phenomena" in the context of the profound principles.
Hui-yan lists ten dharmas under "essence and
phenomena": 1. form (se ); 2. mind (hsin );
3. time (shih ); 4. place (ch'u B ); 5. body
(shen ); 6. direction (fang ); 7. teaching
(chiao ); 8. doctrine (i q ); 9. practice (hsing
); 10. stage (wei ).(29) Hui- yan does not
construct pairs, and these elements are rather
different from those of Ch'eng-kuan. Consequently,
Ch'eng-kuan borrowed the name of the first part from
Hui-yan but its content, the ten pairs, from
Fa-tsang. If Ch'eng-kuan had followed Hui-yan
faithfully, the first part could not have been
related to the dharma-dhaatu of phenomena but should
be related to the dharma-dhaatu of non- obstruction
of principle and phenomena. The term "essence and
phenomena" with the ten pairs appears in
Ch'eng-kuan's commentary on Discernment of Dharma-
dhaatu by Tu-shun (557-640), and it refers to the
realm of empty phenomena.(30) Ch'eng-kuan's novelty
is that he does not only enumerate the ten pairs, but
also attempts to establish -- sometimes not so
evidently-- a connection among the pairs, implying
that their order of succession is not by chance.
"The first of these ten pairs is the summary
(tsung ` ), and the others next to it comprise less
and less. We will discuss their succession. The
Tath`gata proclaimed the teaching that treats
(neng-ch'an ) [the doctrines] and the
principle/doctrine(31) treated (so-ch'an Ҹ )[by
the teaching]. There is no single Dharma that is not
included. Among the Dharmas, we find teachings,
principles, practices and results. The practice and
the result are comprised of the principle/doctrine.
The second: Although there are many
principles/doctrines, neither of them go beyond
treating the connection between phenomena and
_____________________________________________________
authorship has been long disputed.Although
traditionally it is attributed to A'svaghosha,
it seems to be written by an adherent of Ti-lun
a school; see Whalen Lai, A Clue to the
Authorship of the Awakening of Faith:
'Sik.saananda's 'Redaction of the Word 'Nien'.
Journal of the International Association of
Buddhist Studies 3,1(1980): 34-53. For the two
aspects of one mind, see in English translation
of this work, Hakeda, Yoshito S., The Awakening
of Faith Attributed to A'svaghosha. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1967, 31-32.
(29) HTC 5.42a1-15.
(30) Hua-yen fa-chieh hsan-ching Ykɥ T
1883: 45.672c15-18; 674a16.
(31) In the text "principle" (li z )can be found,
but "doctrine" (i q ) might be more
appropriate.
p.342
principle (shih-chih y-li ƤPz ), ie. there is
no dharma that the nature (hsing )and marks
(hsiang )do not contain. The third: The principle
encompasses the following eight [dharmas]. We only
define its place but do not discuss it further.
Concerning the phenomena, they do not go beyond
object and wisdom. The fourth: The objects must be
discerned with wisdom in order to gain the practice
for cultivation and to reach [various] stages. The
fifth: Until the practices and stages do not reach
their climax (wei-chi )everything belongs to the
cause. After reaching their climax, everything
belongs to the result. The sixth: Many results do not
go beyond the primary and the secondary conditions of
rebirth. It also can be related to the cause. The
seventh: Both primary and secondary conditions of
rebirth have essence and function. As in the case of
the primary conditions of rebirth, the essence is the
dharma-kaaya and the sa.mbhoga- kaaya, the function
is the nirmaa.na-kaaya. In the case of the secondary
conditions, the essence is the dharma-nature and the
other Buddha-fields, and the function is that
[Buddha] manifests himself in accord with the
capacity of listeners. [His manifestations] are
interfused and non-obstructed, he appears differently
only because of [the different capacities]. The
eighth: In the primary conditions of rebirth the man
and dharma, which are not identical, can be found.
Man is created by dharmas, and man spreads the
Dharma. The ninth: Among people, there are some who
resist, and some who confirm, the Dharma. Tenth:
Emotion and response depend on whether someone
resists or confirms. The emotion that resists the
conversion should be responded by Vasumitra and
others; the emotion that confirms the conversion
should be responded by Ma~nju'srii and others. If
elements [of the pairs] are divided further, two
[other] elements are produced from one, and this way
there will be more dharmas. For example, the result
can be divided into the primary and secondary
conditions of rebirth, thus it becomes two. This can
be done with the cause, as well, thus it becomes
four. The primary conditions of rebirth can be
divided into essence and function. The secondary
conditions of rebirth can be divided the same way, so
it becomes eight. By this
p.343
method evolving from each other (hsiang-wang
chan-chuan ۱i )it becomes many. "(32)
Ch'eng-kuan in the second part, "Reversion of
everything to reality" defines the meaning of true
emptiness. In the Subcommentary, he quotes, almost
word for word, the first chapter of Discernment of
Dharma-dhaatu, which elaborates the notion of true
emptiness.
The third part, based also on Tu-shun's work,
recapitulates the ten aspects of the non-obstruction
of principle and phenomena. Nonetheless, in the
explanation of the first and second aspects, i.e.
that the principle penetrates the phenomena, and
phenomena penetrate principle, a new, important
topic, the Buddha-nature is added and intensively
discussed by Ch'eng-kuan.(33) Stressing the positive
aspect of Buddhahood, he states that Buddha-nature is
empty because it is endowed with innumerable
marvellous merits. He defines middle-way
Buddha-nature as emptiness and non-emptiness, both of
which should be realized by the inherited wisdom to
attain Buddha-nature.(34) The usage of the term
"middle-way Buddha- nature" reveals the impact of the
T'ien-t'ai philosophy.(35) With his thorough
treatment of the Buddha-nature teaching, he
underlines the soterological aspect of the terms
"principle" and "phenomena".
The name of the fourth part is identical with
that of the third chapter in Discernment of
Dharma-dhaatu, but its content is different. Instead
of ten themes
_____________________________________________________
(32) T 1736: 36.71.9b9-27.
(33) T 1735: 35.514b2-11; 1736: 36. 72b4-73b14.
(34) For Ch'eng-kuan's own interpretation of
Buddha-nature doctrine, see T 1736:
36.73a14-b15.
(35) Chih-i relates three terms to the middle-way
Buddha-nature: ever-abidingness, meritorious
function, embracing various dharmas; for an
extensive discussion of these terms, see Ng Yu-
Kwan, T'ien-t'ai Buddhism and Early
Maadhyamika. University of Hawaii, 1993, 62-89.
Ch'eng- kuan studied from the famous T'ien-t'ai
patriarch, Chan-jan; see Sung kao-seng chuan T
2061: 50.737a15-16. For the impact of
T'ian-t'ai philosophy on Ch'eng-kuan and vice
versa, see Kamata, Ch2goku kegon. 423-474;
Sakamoto Yukio, Hijo ni okeru butsusho yuumu ni
tsuite // toku ni Tannen, Chokan o chuushin to
shite. Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyuu 7,2(1959):
416-425; Hibi Nobumasa, Tannen no kyogaku ni
okeru Chokan no eikyo // shikan taii no seisaku
nendai o chuushin to shite. Indogaku Bukkyogaku
Kenkyuu 14,1 (1965). 105-109; Akita Mitsuyoshi,
Chokan ni mirareru tendai shikan. Tendai Gakuho
82 (1985): 107-110.
p.344
of discernment, Ch'eng-kuan discusses the new ten
profound principles (hsin shih- hsan men sQȪ
)(36) established by Fa-tsang. The "total pervasion
and accommodation" consists of two parts. The first
part is called "the explanation of ten profound
principles" by the Commentary and Subcommentary but
"the profound merit and function" (te-yung hsan-miao
wΥȧ ) by the New Commentary.(37) Here, he
compares the new ten profound principles with the old
ten profound principles formulated by Chih-yen. He
also expounds Hui-yan's double ten profound
principles, of which ten belong to the Buddha's merit
and ten to the function of karma.(38) He considers
the doubling of ten profound principles as
unnecessary, for the meaning of the double ten
profound principles is conveyed by the original form.
(39)Lastly, with the precedent of one dharma, a
letter of a flower, he presents the ten profound
principles. His explanation is adopted, almost word
for word, from Fa-tsang's treatment of division of
doctrines in his commentary on Hua-yen-ching.(40) The
second part is the clarification of the reason of
merit and function (ming te-yung so-yin wΩҦ] )
.(41) The introduction of two terms, "merit and
function" can be undoubtedly attributed to Hui-yan's
influence on Ch'eng-kuan. In the New Commentary
Ch'eng-kuan defines these terms. The merit means the
countless merit of the Tathataa (chen-ju up ). When
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas realize the Tathataa, they
become
_____________________________________________________
(36) For a comparison of the ten themes of
discerment with the ten profound principles,
see Yoshizu Yoshihide, Hokkai kanmon ni tsuite.
Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyuu 28,1(1979), 351;
1980a. Chokan no kegon kyogaku to Tojun no
Hokkai kanmon. Komazawa Daigaku Bukkyo Gakubu
Kenkyuu Kiyo 38(1980), 154-156.
(37) HTC 7.490b18-491a1.
(38) For Hui-yan's discussion of double ten
profound principles, see HTC 5.43b17-48b1. For
Ch'eng-kuan's critics, see T 1736:
36.75c26-76b8.
(39) See Kamata, Chuugoku kegon. 555. In Hsin-i
Hua-yen-ching ch'i-ch'u chiu-hui sung-shih
chang sĶYgCBE|| (T 1738: 36.)
Ch'eng-kuan discusses the ten profound
principles, but he does not criticize Hui-yan,
attempts to harmonize Fa-tsang's teaching with
that of Hui-yan; see Ike Kaname, Shinyaku
Kegonkyo shichisho kyuukaiso shakusho ni
tsuite. Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyuu 40,1
(1992): 74-78.
(40) T 1735: 35.123b14-124a8.
(41) T 1735: 35.513c25.
p.345
endowed with these merits. The term, "function of the
karma" is used in the sense that after the Buddhas
and the Bodhisattvas reached enlightenment, they
preach the Dharma in accord with the listeners'
capacities.(42)
Then, Ch'eng-kuan poses a question: What causes
the mutual non- obstruction and interpenetration of
the dharmas? He gives ten reasons: because 1. the
dharmas are manifested by the mind (wei-hsin so-hsien
ߤߩҲ{ ); 2. the dharmas do not have fixed nature
(fa wu ting-hsing kLw ); 3. the dharmas are
conditionally originated (yan-ch'i hsiang-yu t_
); 4. the dharma- nature includes everything
(fa-hsing jung-t'ung kʿijq ); 5. the dharmas are
like illusions and dreams (ju huan-meng p۹ ); 6.
the dharmas are like reflected images (ju ying-hsiang
pv ); 7. The Buddhahood has innumerable causes
(yin wu-hsien ]L ); 8. Buddha reached the final
enlightenment (fo cheng-ch'iung ҽa ); 9. the
function of meditation makes like this (shen-ting
yung `w ); 10. the supernatural powers and
liberation make like this (shen- t'ung chieh-t'o q
Ѳ ) .(43) Fa-tsang's ten reasons are slightly
different: (44) 1. the dharmas are conditionally
originated (yan-ch'i hsiang-yu t_ۥ ); 2. the
dharma-nature includes everything (fa-hsing
jung-t'ung kʿijq ); 3. everything is manifested by
the mind (ko wei-hsien Uߤ߲{ ); 4. the dharmas are
unreal like illusions (ju-huan pu-shih pۤ ); 5.
the sizes of dharmas are not fixed (ta-hsiao wu-ting
jpLw ); 6. Buddhahood has innumerable causes
(wu-hsien yin-sheng L] ); 7. the Buddha's merit
is perfect and final (kuo-te yan-ch'i Gw귥 ); 8.
the supernatural powers are freely demonstrated
(shen-t'ung tzu- tsai qۦb ); 9. The function of
samaadhi is great (san-mei ta-yung TNj ); 10.
the liberation is inconceivable (nan-ssu chieh-t'o
Ѳ ). Fa-tsang in another work summarizes the
contents of Hua-yen-ching under ten topics:(45) 1.
the marks
_____________________________________________________
(42) HTC 7.492b14-17.
(43) Cf. Garma C. C. Chang, The Buddhist Teaching of
Totality. University Park: The Pennsylvania
State University Press, 1974, 25-26.
(44) T 1735: 35.124a10-14.
(45) Hua-yen-ching chih-kuei Ygk T 1871:
45.594c25-29.
p.346
are not fixed (wu ting-hsiang Lw ); 2. the
dharmas are manifested by the mind (wei-hsin hsien
߲{ ); 3. the phenomena are like illusions (ju-huan
shih pۨ ); 4. the dharmas are manifested like
dreams (ju-meng hsien pڲ{ ); 5. the supernatural
powers (sheng-t'ung li ӳqO ); 6. the function of
the meditation (shen-ting yung `w ); 7. the power
of liberation (chieh-t'o li ѲO ) ; 8. the
Buddhahood has innumerable causes (yin wu-hsien ]L
) ; 9. the dharmas originate conditionally
(yan-ch'i hsiang-yu t_ۥ ) ; 10. the
dharma-nature includes everything (fa-hsing
jung-t'ung kʿijq ). The ten causes listed by
Ch'eng-kuan are closer to the second series, but he
connects the similarity to dreams and the
supernatural powers to the similarity to illusions
and liberation, respectively. In addition, he takes
up two new elements (6,8) into his list.
In the philosophy of earlier patriarchs, the
teaching of the ten profound principles was used
exclusively to reveal the non-obstruction and
interfusion of phenomena. However, Ch'eng-kuan in
discussing the reason "dharma-nature includes
everything" extended the scope of the application of
this Hua-yen doctrine into the interfusion of
phenomena and principle.(46) This modification must
be attributed to Hui-yan's influence, who was
inclined to overemphasize the role of absolute
reality in his teaching. On the one hand, Ch'eng-kuan
preserved the ten profound principle in its original
form, disputing Hui-yan's double ten profound
principles. On the other hand, not neglecting
Hui-yan's intention, he attempted to fit this new
aspect of profound principles into the framework of
classical Hua- yen philosophy.
Ch'eng-kuan treats this new aspect in his
Commentary in the following way.
"The first [profound principle]: The true
principle (chen-li uz ) corresponds to all dharmas,
and [all dharmas] comprise the principle. It is the
simultaneous [completion] and mutual correspondence
of dharmas. The second [profound principle]: the
phenomena, like the principle, can include and
penetrate
_____________________________________________________
(46) See, Takamine Ryoshuu, Kegonshio shi. Tokyo:
Hyakkaen, 1963. 290.
p.347
everything, in the meantime their own narrow marks do
not cease. It is the principle of non-obstruction of
pure and impure, wide and narrow [dharmas]. Moreover,
the nature is eternal and equal, so it is pure; it
contains all dharmas, so it is impure. The third
[profound principle]: The principle penetrates all
sorts of phenomena. Therefore, one phenomenon, due to
the principle it owns, penetrates all the other
phenomena. The whole principle can be found in one
phenomenon, so all the other phenomena, due to the
principle, are included in one phenomenon. It is the
principle of mutual inclusion of one [phenomenon] and
the others. The fourth [profound principle]: The true
principle is not separated from the dharmas, so one
phenomenon is identical with the true principle, and
the true principle is identical with all phenomena.
Therefore, this one phenomenon is identical with
those other phenomena. By its reversion, it can be
inferred that all the other [phenomena] are identical
with that one. It is the principle of mutual identity
of all dharmas in freedom. The fifth [profound
principle]: The true principle is included --
completely and not partially -- in every phenomenon,
so when it is included in this [phenomenon], it is
concealed in that one; when it is included in that
[phenomenon], it is concealed in this one. It is the
principle of concealment and disclosure. The sixth
[profound principle]: The true principle comprises
all dharmas, so the phenomena, which are supported by
it, suddenly appear in one phenomenon. It is the
principle of [mutual containment] of subtle
phenomena. The seventh [profound principle]: This
[phenomenon] completely contains the principle, so it
can manifest everything; that [phenomenon] contains
completely the principle, so, like this one, it
suddenly manifests [everything]. When "this"
manifests "that", "that", which manifests (neng-hsien
{ ), and [the others] which are manifested by
"that" (so-hsien Ҳ{ )all become manifested in
"this". When "that" manifests "this", "this", which
manifests, and [the others] which are manifested by
"this" all become manifested in "that". By this
method, the phenomena are intermingled infinitely
(ch'ung-ch'ung wu-chin L ). The principle of
Indra's net can be established, for the Tathataa is
finally infinite. The
p.348
eighth [profound principle]: As the phenomena are
identical with the principle, with raising of one
phenomenon, the truth (chen-fa men uk )can be
attained. It is the principle [of illustrating the
truth] through phenomena. The ninth [profound
principle]: As the Tathataa penetrates day and night,
day and month, year and kalpa, they all comprise it.
Being included in a day is not different from being
included in a kalpa. It is the reason for the
principle of the various formation of ten times. If
the time depends on dharmas, do dharmas not interfuse
with the time? The tenth [profound principle]: While
one phenomenon is identical with principle, it does
not impede on its correspondence, without
interruption, to all [phenomena]. It is the principle
of primary and secondary [aspect of a phenomenon].
Therefore, the one principle includes these ten
principles."(47)
Conclusion
In the division of doctrines, Ch'eng-kuan
attempted to create a system of Hua-yen teachings.
Yoshizu Yoshihide argues that Ch'eng-kuan made a
synthesis of Discernment of Dharma-dhaatu with
Fa-tsang's ten profound principles.(48) In our
analysis of the text, we have shed light on his
several borrowings from Hui-yan. Despite his strong
criticism against Hui-yan, he is, certainly,
indebted to him. (49) Moreover, Ch'eng-kuan, often
borrowing from Tu-shun's work, emphasizes meditation
more than Fa-tsang. The increased role of meditation
and Buddha-nature teaching must be attributed to the
development of Ch'an in Ch'eng-kuan's age.
In elaborating the perfect teaching, Fa-tsang
discusses the dharma-dhaatu dependent arising, the
interrelatedness of phenomena, while Ch'eng-kuan's
_____________________________________________________
(47) T 1735: 35.517a26-b20.
(48) Yoshizu, Chokan no kegon. 28-32; Kegonzen.
234-238.
(49) He brought ten charges against Hui-yan, see T
1736: 36.16b15-18c7; Sakamoto, Kegon kyogaku.
63-94; Gregory, Tsung-mi. 256.
p.349
treatment is based on the theory of four
dharma-dhaatus, stressing the significance of the
interfusion of principle and phenomena.
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