p. 80

   Nirvana ( nibbana ) is, according  to the Samyutta  Nikaya
(Vol, II., p.  117  ), cessation  of existence  (bhavanirodho
nibbanam). It is according to the Visuddhimagga,(1) pancannam
khandhanam  nirodho  ( extinction  of five  khandhas ).  The
Visuddhimagga further points out that there is only truth and
no second (ekam hi saccam na dutiyam ).  This is the idea of
nibbana involved in this passage. Nibbana includes absence of
passion  (viraga), destruction  of pride ( mada nimmadana  ),
killing  of thirst(  tanhakkhayo  ), freedom  from attachment
(alayasamugghato)  and destruction  of all sensual  pleasures
(Kamapipasa Vinaya), these are the attributes of nibbana.  It
is the  cessation  of all  sufferings -(sabbadu- kkhupasama
samkhata)  (3).  In the same work we find that nibbana can be
attained   through   meditation   (jhana),  wisdom  (panna),
precepts( sila ), steadfastness (araddhaviriyo) (4) etc.

   In the Atthasalinl (p. 409)  nibbana means that from which
the arrow of desire (tanhasamkhatam  vanam niggatam  va tasma
vanati nibbanam)  is gone away.  It is freedom from all sins,
final release from the lower nature as Mr.  Maung Tin puts it
( Expositor, 518 ). In the Sumangalavilasini ( Vol. I., 217 )
Buddhaghosa says that a person obtains nibbana making himself
free from the wilderness  of misdeeds.  Nibbana  is described
here as the state of bliss ( duccarita  kantaram  nittharitva
paramam khemantabhumim Amata-Nibbanam? papunati ). This is in
agreement  with what  has been said  in the Milindapanho  (p.
69).  In the Kathavatthupakaranatthakatha  nibbana  has  been
described as a void (J.P.T.S., 1889, p.  178;cf.  Dhammapada,
verse 93, Sunnato). Ac-
-----------------------------
1  Vol. II, p.611
2  Vol. II, p.497,
3  Vol. I, p. 293.
4  Vol. I, p. 3.

                             p. 81

cording to the Abhidhammatthasangaha  it is so called because
it is a departure  from that craving  which  is called  Vana,
lusting  or craving.  It is to be realised  through knowledge
belonging to the four paths.  It is the object of those paths
and of their fruition.  It is called lokuttara samkhatam.  It
is excellent, uncreated, and it is free from lust.(1)

   Dr.  Poussin(2) points out that according to the doctrinal
tenets  of Buddhism, accurately  and profusely  explained  in
every  part of the Scriptures, Nirvana  is annihilation.  But
this meaning is very vague.  We do not agree with him when he
further points out that the most exact and most authoritative
definition  of Nirvana  is not  annihilation  but unqualified
deliverance,' a deliverance  of  which  we have  no right  to
predicate anything(3).  Nirvana means the estinction of raga,
dosa  and moha(  passion, hatred  and  delusion).  Mrs.  Rhys
Davids  is perfectly  right  when  she  says  in her  learned
introduction to the Dhammapada that Nirvana is the waning out
of all evil, raga, dosa and moha.  (The minor Anthologies  of
the Pali Canon, pt, I., p. xix ).

   It is clearly  pointed  out in the  Samyutta  Nikaya  that
Nibbana is ragakkhaya, dosakkhaya  and mohakkhaya  ( Samyutta
Nikaya, IV., 251 ). It is true as Mrs. Rhys Davids points out
that Nirvana  is nothing  but diminishing  of the vicious and
the  weak  in the man which  is the  negative  aspect  of his
positive   advance  in  becoming.   The  literal  meaning  of
'nirvana' is 'nibbapeti'  that which is extinguished.  We can
gather a clear idea of the subject  from various  Pali Books,
the Dhammapada, the Khuddakapatha, the Sutta  Nipata  and the
Milindapanho. 4 Some have translated
------------------------------
1. Nibbanam  pana lokuttara  --  samkhatam  catumagga-nanena
   sacchika- tabbam  magga-phalanam  alambana-bhutam vana-
   samkhataya tanhaya nikkhantatta nibbansm ti pavuccati,
   .........  asamkhatam anuttaram nibbanam....... vanamutta
   ........  ( Abhidhammattha-Samgaha, p. 31, in J.P.T.S.,
   1884 ).
2. The way to Nirvana, p. 133
3. The way to Nirvana, p. 131.
4. Vide my paper'Idea of Nibbana in the Milindapanho (Journal
   of the Mahabodhi Society, October, 1931). I have discussed
   all these points in my forthcoming volume on the History of
   Pali Literature.

                             p. 82

the  word, 'Nibbana'  as  'ambrosia', 'immortality', 'perfect
beatitude', Summum  Bonum, etc.  We all know  that  an arahat
obtains  Nirvana.   Arhattva   and  Nirvana  are  synonymous.
Childers  rightly  points out that nibbana in verse 23 of the
Dhammapada means arhatship (Pali Dict,, p.  269).  He further
points  out that  nibbana  is used to designate  two differnt
things:--  (1) the state  of blissful  sanctification  called
arhatship, and  (2)  the annihilation  of existence  in which
arhatship ends (ibid., p.266). This view of Childers has been
supported   by  James  D'Alwis  in  his  'Essay  on  Buddhist
Nirvana', a review of Max Muller's Dhamma pada.

   Next  comes  the  question  whether  a layman  can  attain
nirvana.  We are shocked  to read pp.  150-151  of the Way to
Nirvana  where  Dr.  Poussin  writes  thus, "Laymen,  however
faithful, generous, and virtuous  they  may be, even  if they
practise  the fortnightly  abstinence  and continence  of the
Upavasa, cannot reach Nirvana."

In other words, according to Dr. Poussin only the monks after
having reached the fourth stage of sanctification  can obtain
nirvana.  We find  it otherwise  if we  closely  examine  the
following  references  from Pali books.  A close study of the
Guhatthaka  Sutta  (p.58)  and the Jara Sutta (p.129)  of the
Mahaniddesa  together  with their commentaries  by Dhammapala
helps  us to look for the munis  both among  the householders
and the recluses.  The munis are defined  as persons who have
attenuated  their  sins  and  have  seen  nibbana  and  as to
householders,  they  are  represented   as  persons  who  are
overburdened   with   all   household   duties.    No   other
discrimination  is sought  to be made between  the Agaramunis
and the Anagaramunis than this, that while the former keep to
the method of household  life, the latter do not.  As for the
attainment, both are held out as equally competent to win the
highest state, which is nibbana(1).
----------------------------------
1. Agaram majjhe vasanta agaramunino pabbajjupagata anagara-
munino sattasekkhamunino arahanta asekkhamunino paccekabuddha
pacceka-munino sammasambuddha munimunino. Agaramunino- garika
ti kasigorakkhadi agarika-kamme nijutta, ditthapadati dittha-
nibbana,   vinnata   sasanati   vinnatam   sikkhattayasasanam
etesanti   vinnata   sasana.    Anagara   ti   kasigorakkhadi
agariyakammam etesam natthit, pabbajjita anagara ti vuccanti.
(Commentary  on  the  Mahaniddesa.  Siamese  Edition,  p.218,
Guhatth aka Sutta and Jara Sutta).

                             p. 83

   In  the  Anguttara  Nikaya  we  find  mention  of  21  lay
arahats.(1) T.W.  Rhys Davids in his learned introduction  to
the Samannaphala Sutta calls them laymen arahats (S.B.B.,Vol.
II,, p. 63, f.n.).  If we are to believe the statement of Dr.
Poussin, how was it possible that laymen became arahats fully
qualified for obtaining nirvana. In the Kathavatthu (Bk.  IV,
p.268,  P.T.S.), we  find  that  kulaputta  Yasa, householder
Uttiya and young Brahman Setu attained arahatship  in all the
circumstances  of life  in the  laity.(2)  Referring  to this
point S.Z.  Aung and Mrs.  Rhys Davids  have inferred  that a
layman under exceptional circumstances  may attain arahatship
but  to  keep  it  he must  give  up  the  world  (Points  of
Controversy, p. 158, f.n.).  We find that T.  W.  Rhys Davids
and C.A.F.  Rhys Davids in part iii, p. 5 of the Dialogues of
the Buddha (S.B.B.,Vol.IV)  have raised this question: who in
the oldest period could be an arahat? The answer is: - Anyone
-  men or women, old or young, lay  or religieux.  They  have
drawn our attention  to a number of lay arahats mentioned  in
many canonical and non-canonical Pali books. It is distinctly
mentioned  in the Milindapanho(3)  which  is one  of the most
important  Pali books that Nagasena  in reply to the question
put to him by King Menander  points out that whether  he be a
layman or recluse, he who attains to the supreme  insight, to
the supreme conduct
------------------------------
1. Chahi bhikkhave dhammehi samannagato Bhalliko gahapati ...
   Sudatto gahapati    Anathapindiko...     Citto    gahapati
   Macchikasandiko...'Hatthako Alavako... Mahanamo Sakko...
   Uggo   gahapati    Vesaliko...    Uggate   gahapati...Suro
   Ambattho...  Jivako Komarabhacco... Nakulapita gahapati...
   Tavakanniko   gahapati...   Purano  gahapati...   Isidatto
   gahapati...Sandhano      gahapati...Vijayo     gahapati...
   Vajjiyamahito  gahapati...  Mendako  gahapati...  Vasettho
   upasako,  Arittho  upasako,  Saraggo   upasako   Tathagate
   nittham   gato  amataddaso   amatam  sacchikatva   iriyati
   (Anguttara Nikaya, Vol.  III, p.  451; Cf.  Vinaya, I, 17;
   Samyutta  Nikaya.  V, 94;  The Questions  of King Milinda,
   II,, 57, 96, 245; Dhammapada Commentary, I, 308, etc.).
2. Yaso kulaputto, Uttiyo gahapati, Setu manavo gihissa byan-
   janena arahattam patte, tena vata re vattabbe 'GihI' ssa
   Araha ti.'
3. According to the Burmese tradition the Milindapanha is one
   of the books of the Khuddaka Nikaya which is  included in
   the  Sutta  Pitaka,  hence a  book of the canon (The Pali
   Literature of Burma, p.4).

                             p. 84

of life, he too will win his was to the excellent condition of
Arahatship.(1)

   "GihI pi maharaja samma patipanno aradhako hoti
    nayam dhammam kusalam, pabbajito pi maharaja samma
    patipanno aradhako hoti nayam dhammam kusalam.(2)"

It is clear from this passage that a  householder if he leads
a religious life may obtain arahatship which is  nirvana. The
Milindapanho further points out that whosoever has  attained,
as a layman, to arahatship, one of the two courses is left to
him and no other-either that very day he enters the order or
he dies for, beyond  that day he cannot last. ( The Questions
of King Milinda, II , p.96 ).

   "Yo gihI  arahattam  patto  dve v' assa  gatiyo  bhavanti,
ananna: tasmim yeva divase pabbajati va parinibbayati  va, na
so  divaso  sakka  atikkametun  ti.''  Milindapanho,  ed.  by
Trenckner, pp, 264- 265 ).

   And  all they  who as laymen, living  at home  and  in the
enjoyment  of the pleasures  of sense, realise  in themselves
the condition of Peace, the Supreme Good Nirvana,--  all they
had in former  births  accomplished  their training, laid the
foundation,  in  the  practice  of  the  thirteen  vows,  had
purified their walk and conduct by means of them;  and so now
even  as laymen, living  at home and in the enjoyment  of the
pleasures  of  sense,  do  they  realise  in  themselves  the
condition  of Peace, the Supreme Good, Nirvana (The Questions
of King Milinda, II., p.253).  T.W.  Rhys  Davids  and C.A.F.
Rhys  Davids  remark  in  their  introduction  to the  Patika
Suttanta  that when laymen had experienced  the mental change
called  becoming  an Arahant, the natural  result, under  the
conditions  prevailing.  in Northern  India in the 6th or 5th
Centuries  B.C., would  be that he would become  a religieux,
and this may have been sufficient reason for such opinions as
those expressed in the Kathavatthu and the Milinda having, in
the  course  of  centuries, grown  up, (  S.B.B.,  Vol.  IV.,
Dialogues  of the Buddha, III, pp 5-6 ).  In the Dhammpada we
find that the verse 23 of the
----------------------------------------
 1. The Questions  of King Milinda, II., p. 58. (SBE).
 2. Milindapanho, Ed. by Trenokner. P. 243.

                             p. 85

Appamadavagga  refers  to the  learned, meditative, steadfast
and  always  firm  in  their  determination  having  obtained
nirvana.  The verse 226 of the same work mentions  that those
who are always  watchful, study  day and night and who strive
after nirvana, their passions will come to an end.  The verse
289 refers to a wise and well-behaved  man who should quickly
clear  the way leading  to nirvana.  All such  verses  of the
Dhammapada  point  out  that  a layman  or  monk  may  obtain
nirvana.

   Another   interesting   point  which  should  attract  our
attention is whether there be any such precept prescribed for
the laity as we find prescribed for the monks.  A layman with
trusting heart (pasanna-citto) while leading a household life
should observe the following precepts:--

1. panatipataveramani, avoidance of life slaughter,
2. Adinnadanaveramani, abstinence from stealing,
3. Kamesumicchacaraveramani, abstinence from evil conduct
   in respect of sensual pleasures,
4. musavadaveramani, abstinence from speaking falsehood,
5. sura-meraya-majja- pamadatthanaveramanI, abstinence from
   taking strong, intoxicating and maddening drinks.(1)

   It  is  curious  to  note  that  among  the  ten  precepts
prescribed  for regulating the conduct of the Buddhist monks,
only  five mentioned  above  are meant  for the householders.
Some are under the impression  that it is not possible  for a
householder to observe these
-------------------------------------------------
1. "Yo kho brabmana pasanna-citto sikkha-padani  samadiyati,
--   panati-   pata  veramani,  adinnadana  veramani,  kamesu
micchara  veramani, musa  -  vada veramani, sura -  meraya  -
majja -  pamadatthana  veramani  --  ayam kho brahmana  yanno
imaya  ca  ti  --   vidhaya  yanna  -   sampadaya  solasa  --
parikkharaya imina ca nicca- danena anu- kula - yannena imina
ca vihara -  danena imehi ca saranagamanehi  appatthataro  ca
appasamarabbhataro ca mahapphalataro ca maha - nisamsataro ca
ti." Kutadanta Sutt-Digha Nikaya, I., p.  146;  cf.  also the
Sigalovada Sutta of the Digha Nikaya which is also called the
Vinaya qf ths Houseman, S. B. B., Vol. IV,, p. 169.

                             p. 86

precepts.  We are at a loss to understand  why the observance
of  these  precepts  is not  practicable  in the  case  of  a
householder, rather it is difficult  for him deeply engrossed
in worldly affairs. Surely this is the course of conduct laid
down  for  the  ordinary  Buddhist  layman  contained  in the
Gahapativaggas found in the various Nikayas.(1)
----------------------------------
1. cf. Introduction  to  the  Samannaphala  Sutta,  S.B.B.,
   Vol.II., p. 63.