.

P.277

    Abstract: This paper distinguishes between two conceptions
of  philosophical   counseling.   The  one  focuses   on  the
clarification   of   the   individual's   psychological   and
philosophical self and the other on the transcendence of that
self.   A  comparison  of  the  latter  conception  with  the
self-transcendence  that  takes  place  through  Zen Buddhism
contributes  to the examination  of the  question  of whether
philosophical   counseling   can  indeed  overcome  potential
psychological  obstacles  to  attaining  a transcendent  aim.
Possible  influences  of  the  integration  of  psychological
intervention into the philosophical  search for transcendence
are also discussed.

    Since the first emergence of philosophical  counseling as
a form  of  professional  practice  in Germany  in the  early
nineteen  eighties, there have been a number  of attempts  to
define its domain. So far no conclusive consensual definition
has been formulated, nor does  there  appear  to be agreement
even on the essential  ingredients  that must  be present  in
order for an encounter  between  two people  to be considered
philosophical counseling.  In the course of this paper I will
focus  on one central  line of thought  within  philosophical
counseling. This line considers the philo-


P.278


sophical counseling encounter to be characterized  by a quest
for transcending one's self.  The counselor is viewed in this
context   as  a  guide  who,  through  philosophical   means,
facilitates  a process  within  the  counselee  in which  the
counselee  steps  beyond  the course  set  out for him by his
psychological  makeup.  In this respect  there  is similarity
between philosophical  counseling and Zen, which too seeks to
go beyond  the psychological  self to attain  a true state of
being.   An  understanding   of  the   relationship   between
philosophical  counseling  and  Zen  will  help  explore  the
question of whether in philosophical counseling transcendence
is indeed possible, as well as the nature of the difficulties
that may stand in its way.

      TWO BASIC CONCEPTIONS OF PHILOSOPHICAL COUNSELING:
              CLARIFICATION VS. TRANSCENDENCE

    Many  present  day  philosophical   counselors   consider
Socrates to be the spiritual father of their profession. They
view  philosophical  counseling  as  a renewal  of his  early
attempts   to  help  others   examine   their   lives   in  a
philosophical way.  But now, fifteen years since this renewal
began, it has become apparent  that there is little agreement
as to what is to be meant by ''helping  others examine  their
lives philosophically".
    There   is  a  great   diversity   among   the  different
practitioners,   in   their    attempts    to    characterize
philosophical  counseling.  Many of these attempts take place
by comparing  philosophical  counseling  with  other  helping
professions,  most  notably  psychotherapy.   Achenbach,  the
founder of philosophical  counseling, and his followers  have
characterized  philosophical  counseling as an approach which
does   not   use   methods,  techniques,  and  assumptions-as
presumably psychotherapy does-but rather examines these
critically  (Achenbach,  1984,  1995) .   In  contrast,  some
philosophical counselors have stressed that what is unique to
their  form  of  help  is  the  application  of  specifically
philosophical  skills, tools, knowledge, and  methods, to the
alleviation of the individual's distress or


P. 279


    to the  resolution  of the  problem  he is facing  (e.g.,
Cohen, 1995).  Another  view  is that what characterizes  the
help that philosophical  counseling has to offer is precisely
the fact that it is not directed  toward the amelioration  of
distress  or resolution  of problems  but rather  toward  the
philosophical understanding of these (e.g., Veening,  1994) .
Others have considered philosophical counseling to be defined
by its subject matter (e.g., Lahav, 1994;  Schefczyk, 1994;).
Here the claim is that in contrast to psychotherapy  which is
concerned with psychological  processes and mechanisms  which
exist within the individual's mind, philosophical  counseling
is concerned  with  conceptual  issues  that arise  from  the
individual's  life, but do not  exist  within  his mind.  And
still other philosophical  counselors have stressed that what
characterizes  the  philosophical  encounter  is the kind  of
symmetric  nonauthoritarian  relationship  that the counselor
offers the counselee (e.g., Tillmans, 1994;  Lindseth, 1990),
and so on and so forth.
    My examination  of the numerous sub-approaches  that have
evolved, only a few of which  I have mentioned  here, has led
me to realize  that they can generally  be divided  into  two
broad conceptions  of philosophical  counseling  that pervade
the  field.   According   to  one  conception   philosophical
counseling  is a process of clarification, while according to
the  other  it  is  a process  of transcendence.  In  a word,
according  to the former, philosophical  counseling  aims  at
clarifying the counselee's present way of being. In contrast,
the latter approach  attempts  to aid the counselee  in going
beyond  his present  way of being  into a new one.  Thus, the
former  may seek  to clarify  the  person's  way of being  by
uncovering, examining and possibly modifying  presuppositions
hidden in the person's  attitude, various potentialities  and
implications  of his situation, concepts  that are interwoven
in his life, ideas which he follows, ethical implications  of
his actions, alternative  courses  of action, and so on.  The
latter, on the other hand, would focus on the alternative way
of being into which the person  can evolve;  on creating  new
ways  of  seeing, experiencing, relating, thinking.  In other
words, whereas  the former  deals  with the person's  present
conceptual coordinates-with their understanding, sharpening,


P.280


improvement,  and  even  modification-the   latter   aims  at
transcending these and creating new such coordinates.

PHILOSOPHICAL COUNSELING AS A PROCESS OF CLARIFICATION

     The conception of philosophical  counseling as a process
of clarification  considers the philosophical  examination of
the individual's  life to be one in which the counselor helps
fhe counselee understand  the conceptual  and logical network
that  touches  upon  his life, and more specifically  touches
upon the issues  with which  he is currenty  struggling.  For
example, the counselor may wish to help the counselee clarify
the conception  of authority  which somehow touches  upon his
life.  What exactly counts as "touches upon", may vary across
different approaches.  Depending on the counselor's  specific
approach,  this   clarification   may   be  directed   toward
understanding  the counselee's  actual  state  of mind, e.g.,
actual     thoughts     and     experiences-conscious      or
unconscious-about  authority.  The  counselor  may  point  to
inconsistencies  that exist within the counselee's concept of
authority, or he may  help  to explore  the  consequences  of
having such a concept which the counselee had not envisioned.
Perhaps  holding  on  to  a view  of  authorily  as  a rigid,
unyielding  and  threatening  force,  is  not  beneficial  to
certain aims (e.g., succeeding  in work), something which may
be important to the counselee.
    Alternatively, the  philosophical  clarification  may  be
directed toward a conception of authority which the counselee
lives without being conscious  of it, or even without  having
it  in his  mind  at all.  In such  cases, the  philosophical
concept  of authority  is not something  that  exists  in the
counselee's   mind,  but  may  find  expression,  or  may  be
embodied, in his way of life.  An analogy would be a painting
which may embody the concept of harmony, without that concept
existing  in the painter's  mind.  Just  as the  painter  may
create  such  a painting  without  ever  thinking  about  the
concept of harmony, a counselee may live a life that embodies
a certain conception  of authority  without ever thinking  or
experiencing


P.281


this coneption, either consciously or unconsciously.  One way
in which  the  counselee  may  recognize  and understand  his
conception  of authority  is by seeing it in relationship  to
other available conceptions  which the counselor  may discuss
with him.
    Whether the philosophical examination is applied to facts
in the person's  mind or to conceptual  dimensions  that only
indirectly relate to the person's life, the counselor applies
philosophical  tools, methods  and knowledge  with the aim of
clarifying  the person's  actual way of being.  The counselor
hopes to further the counselee's self-understanding and, once
again depending on the counselor's personal approach, he will
also,  to  a  greater   or  lesser  degree,  hope  that  this
understanding will assist the counselee with his predicament.
Hopefully, the latter  will  now find  new ways to deal  with
what  is distressing  him, will  no  longer  conceive  of his
situation  as a distressing  one, will  resolve  his dilemma,
will function rationally, etc.
    I am aware  that within  this  category  of philosophical
counseling  as  a process  of  clairification  I am  bringing
together  a wide  range  of  approaches, some  of  which  are
strongly  opposed to others.  For example, a concern with the
conceptual  dimension  of life is markedly  different  from a
concern  with the facts  that exist  within  the individual's
mind.  Indeed, in the latter  case I fail to see in what ways
it differs from the concern of many psychological approaches.
To give another example, counseling  which sees clarification
or self-understanding  as a goal  in itself  is fundamentally
different  from one which uses clarification  as a means  for
making the counselee feel better.  These varying  approaches,
nevertheless, bear a great  deal of similarity  when compared
with the other conception of philosophical counseling which I
will now outline: philosophical  counseling  as a process  of
transcendence.


P.282


PHILOSOPHICAL COUNSELING AS A PROCESS OF TRANSCENDENCE

    According to the conception  of philosophical  counseling
as a process of transcendence, the philosophical  examination
of the individual's  life does  not focus  on the counselee's
actual  way  of being.  Rather,it is a process  in which  the
counselor  serves  as a guide in the counselee's  quest to go
beyond his life as determined by psychological dimensions and
philosophical  conceptions, and to recognize  in a live way a
new conceptual  space  that opens up through  a philosophical
encounter.  The aim here is to go beyond not only the factual
psychological level of existence, but also beyond the network
of concepts  which  the  counselee  is currently  living.  To
return  to our earlier  example, the goal would not be merely
to explore  the philosophical  concept  of authority  that is
embodied  in the  individual's  life, but  to open  up  a new
conceptual  space  of living  and participating, in which the
issue  of authority  in its previous  form no longer  exists.
Through   in-depth   philosophical   exploration,  an  entire
reordering  on the conceptual  level  may take place in which
the concept of authority would assume a different role, would
become  part of one's life in a new and more meaningful  way.
For  example, in  the  context  of  a  broad  shift  from  an
individualistic  conception  of the self to a Buberian I-Thou
conception, the counselee's  view of authority  may undergo a
shift   from  authority   as  constituting   the  independent
existence  of  the  person, to  authority  as a dimension  of
inauthenticity, a breach of the participating  stance  in the
world.
    In terms of the painting  analogy described above, (i.e.,
the  person's  life  as  analogous  to a painter's  painting)
philosophical  counseling  is not  concerned  here  with  the
actual painting. It is concerned neither with the meanings
embodied  in the counselee's  "painting'(i.e., his actual way
of being) nor with what goes  on in his mind  while  painting
it, but rather  with a novel potential  painting  that is not
yet in existence.  It sees its role as that of taking a whole
new  look  at the painting, exploring  new  coordinates  with
which  to  examine  and  experience   it,  with  the  aim  of
developing a


P.283


more meaningful picture. Not only will new dimensions of  the
picture be appreciated, but through this appreciation a whole
new picture  is created.  One may say, a new canvas is opened
up to the counselee.
    Admittedly, such  in-depth  philosophic  exploration  may
involve   a  process   of  clarification,  as  in  the  other
conception of philosophical coun-  seling.  Clarification  of
psychological  dimensions, ideas, wishes, etc., would  not be
important  in themselves  here, but the clarification  of the
conceptual  domain may.  However, in contrast to the previous
conception  of  philosophical  counseling, the  focus  of the
clarification  here would not be limited  to a certain  issue
within  the  already  given  conceptual   framework   of  the
counselee's  present  life.  To stay with the specific  issue
with  which  the  counselee   comes  for  counseling   (e.g.,
authority) would  be to limit any possibility  for rebuilding
the basic conceptual coordinates which he lives.  It would be
like taking a new look at the painting  but focusing  only on
the issue of harmony.  Without  taking into account issues of
color, of form, of balance, of thematic content,of symbolism,
etc., the only change that could occur would be limited  to a
local modification  within the already existing picture.  The
issue  with  which  the  individual  comes  to  philosophical
counseling  must  thus  serve  as  an  opening  to  a broader
philosophical exploration.
    All this suggests  that in contrast  to the clarification
approach    to   philosophical    counseling,   within    the
transcendence approach clarification is only a possible means
toward  the more  ambitious  aim of transcendence.  The focus
would not be on conceptual clarification  per se, nor even on
clarification   in  the  hope  that  it  would  lead  to  the
resolution   of  the  counselee's  problems.   Rather,  the
conceptual exploration would be one means toward going beyond
oneself, both psychologically and philosophically.  It should
be stressed  here that such  clarification  would  be but one
means towards this end.  Other means may be encountering  and
participating in new ideas through reading, or through trying
to live  new conceptions.  The process  here  is far from  an
abstract  exploration, but rather is a live opening up to new
conceptual horizons.
    A question  that naturally  arises  at this point  is: In
what sense is


P.284


this  process  truly  transcendence? In what  way is the  new
philosophical  self(1) that is formed through this process  a
transcendent  one? Transcendence  denotes  a rise above  what
previously existed, thus not just any change in the nature of
the philosophy  one lives  could be considered  to be so.  In
this context  too we may see differences  among philosophical
counselors.
    The most explicit  reference  to the transcendent  aim of
philosophical counseling is to be found in the recent work of
the  Israeli  philosophical   counselor  Ran  Lahav.   In  an
interview in the German journal for philosophical  counseling
Zeitschrift fur Philosophische Praxis (Lahav, 1995b, p. 4) he
says: "Philosophical  Counseling uses philosophy  not just to
solve specific personal problems or to make people feel
better...  The goal is not to repair or improve  what already
exists  in  the  person, but  to overcome, go  beyond, uplift
oneself to new dimensions of depth and wisdom". Lahav, in his
extensive  work in the field, has gradually  shifted  from an
emphasis  on  clarificafion  to  an approach  which  aims  at
enabling the counselee  to go beyond his personal perspective
and  to come  to  live  and  embody  a richer, supra-personal
network  of meaning, which  is  what  he regards  as  wisdom.
According to his approach, a person's way of being, including
behaviors,  attitudes,  emotions,  desires,  etc.,  embody  a
specific  interpretation  of his life  and world, or what  he
calls  the  person's  "lived  understanding", "worldview", or
"network   of  meanings".   The  role  of  the  philosophical
counselor  is to aid the counselee  in exposing the worldview
which  he lives, in critically  examining  its basis, and  in
putting  it in the context  of the horizon  of other possible
worldviews (Lahav, 1993, 1994, 1995a, in press).  In this way
the  person  overcomes  his  particular  limited  horizon  of
attitudes  and opens up to the endless  network of meanings,
which  are not tied to any specific  egocentric  perspective,
and which underlies  our actual and potential  worlds.  Thus,
the process  of transcendence  aimed at here takes the person
from a specific  egocentric, sell-centered  horizon of living
to a supra-personal embodiment of wisdom.
    In   the   work   of  Steven   Segal,  a  South   African
philosophical  counselor the idea of transcendence  as aim of
philosophical counseling is apparent


P. 285


in  his  use  of  a  Heideggerian  framework  (Segal,  1995).
According to him, the role of philosophical  counseling is to
uncover  the person's  fundamental  presuppositions, question
them, and transcend  them  toward  a more  authentic  way  of
being.   These   social,  historical,  cultural   and   other
presuppositions shape our everyday life, but they are usually
hidden  from view and taken  for granted  in our inauthentic,
everyday  moments.  The transition  to authenticity-as  Segal
interprets  Heidegger-is  achieved when one turns one's world
from  a taken  for granted  given  into  an issue, i.e.  from
involvement in it to anxious self-reflection on it, and finds
one's  roots  in it.  As an  example  of this  process, Segal
chooses  the case of Tolstoy's  meaning crisis and conversion
to Christianity, which involved  a kind of self-philosophical
counseling.   Segal  interprets  this  meaning  crisis  as  a
Heideggerian anxiety, in which Tolstoy was no longer involved
in his life and hence  could no longer  make sense of it.  He
started reflecting on everything  he had previously taken for
granted, and  discovered  its  meaninglessness  to  him.  His
previous fundamental values-fame, money, family life, etc.-no
longer meant anything to him. For our purpose it is important
that Tolstoy  managed  to overcome  his crisis and find a new
meaning  (through  Christianity) not  by using  thoughts  and
other materials  from his previous  life, but by going beyond
them through philosophical reflection. It was by going beyond
reason and science, in which he had previously believed, that
he found his new way of being.  As Segal says: "In perplexity
he  overcame  or transcended  reason"  (Segal  1995, p.  116)
    Barbara   Norman,  another  South  African  philosophical
counselor, is like Segal  concerned  with the presuppositions
that underlie and shape our lives, particularly those
originating from our culture (Norman, 1995).  The role of the
philosophical    counselor   is   to   aid   counselees    in
"redescribing" or "re-interpreting"-in  other words, creating
a new understanding of-the situation in which their lives are
embedded.  This is done by becoming  aware  of the underlying
conceptual  framework  (or  "pattern  of  intelligibility") ,
largely  culturally-based, and  going  beyond  it.  It is not
always clear whether Norman's  process  of re-description  is
sufficiently  radical  to  make  it  count  as  a process  of
transcendence. But assuming it is,


P.286


what is interesting  here is that it is a transcendence  to a
particular  perspective, albeit  a  rather  broad  one  which
leaves  much  room  for personal  variation.  The process  of
transcendence  is directed  toward  what Norman refers  to as
"ecological"  relationships.  By this she means  a stance  of
care and involvement  towards  one's  environment, especially
human   environment,  accompanied   by  awareness   of  one's
interdependence  with  the  rest  of the world.  Here  Norman
associates  herself with Buber and with feminist writers, who
portray authentic individuals  in terms of their relationship
to  the  world  outside  them.  While  here  the  process  of
transcendence  is aimed toward a specifically  relational way
of being it would be different for different people depending
on their individual circumstances and life-history.
    What  is  common  to  these  counselors,  and  those  who
maintain   a  similar  approach,  is  the  notion  that  the
authentic  person does not exist within himself.  Here we see
the  vision  of  some  of the  existentialists, most  notably
Heidegger   and  the  religious  existentialists,  especially
Jaspers  and  Marcel, coming  alive  and  finding  expression
within   the   transcendent   conception   of   philosophical
counseling.  Man is not man, Jaspers explains. To be a person
one must go beyond oneself  and the way to this transcendence
is through a philosophical encounter. Jaspers writes:

    There  is  a  soaring   energy   in  the  individual
    responsibility of listening to the whole of reality.
         A man's humanity depends on how deeply he gains
    guidance through this listening.
         To be a man is to become a man. (Jaspers, 1954,
    p. 73)(2)

    In  comparing   the  two  conceptions   of  philosophical
counseling-that     of    clarification,    and    that    of
transcendence-it  is clear  that the latter  conception  sets
itself  a much  more  far-reaching  goal.  The nature  of the
"help" that it offers the individual is guidance to listening
to what is beyond, with the aim of realizing oneself as a man
not realizing what is


P.287


already  in one, but realizing  what  is beyond  one  through
philosophical participation in what lies beyond one.  As such
it  is  unlikely   that  this  conception   of  philosophical
counseling  will ever assume  a central  position  among  the
helping  professions.  Its appeal will never be as popular as
short-term forms of help for overcoming  problems, or even as
popular  as long-term forms of help which delve  deeply  into
the self.  It will probably speak only to those who seek this
kind of edification.
    One may wonder, however, whether, even for those  few who
yearn  for  it, this  type  of philosophical  counseling  can
indeed realize the role to which it aspires  and indeed serve
as a context for guidance towards transcendence. One possible
danger  is that  the  psychological  self  will  resist  such
transformation  and impede the philosophical  process.  As we
inquire into this practical question it is useful to look at,
and  try  to learn  from, another  domain  which  has  sought
self-transcendence -Zen Buddhism.

       ZEN AND SELF-TRANSCENDENCE

    The writings  of the great masters of Zen Buddhism  teach
of the distinction  between what appears to be the essence of
the self and what is the true essential  nature  of the self.
The former  comes close to the modern western  conception  of
the  self  as the complex  network  of psychological  forces,
desires, ideas, etc. The latter, the true essential nature of
the self  is recognized  and can  be "lived"  only  when  the
former  self  is  shed.  This  point  is  exemplified  in the
writings  of  Dogen.   According  to  Dogen  it  is  only  by
overcoming what appears to be the essence of our selfhood (in
its  egotistic  and  superficial  sense), that  the authentic
person comes to the fore:

    To study  the  Buddha  way is to study  the self
    To study the self is to forget the self;
    To forget the self  is to be authenticated  by the
    myriad  things,
    (Shobogenzo Genjo-koan, trans. Cook, 1985,p. 133)


P.288


    Being a self(in the authentic sense of the term) involves
an experienced unity of subject and object, of "I" and other,
one  that  transcends   not  only  the  egocentric  self  but
transcends  the species  as well.  That is, this selfhood  is
non-anthropocentric, expressing a kind of continuity  between
things and persons (Abe, 1985;Cook, 1985). In this respect it
differs not only from most modern-day Western conceptions  of
selfhood,  but  also  from  the  egocentric, anthropocentric,
substantial  conceptions  of the self  of his  time  (Suzuki,
1949).  As Cook  (1985) concludes  in his in-depth  study  of
Dogen's view of authentic selfhood: "Dogen's relevance to the
present times lies in the challenge  he presents to naive and
unexamined assumptions concerning what a self is" (p. 132f).
    Many Zen writers have stressed that one could get lost in
one's superficial  selfhood: "The apperceiving  mind is where
we form the notion of selfhood, and when this notion  forgets
the fact that its very existence  is backed  by no-mind-ness,
personal egoism is asserted" (Suzuki, 1972, p. 143f.).  To go
beyond the personal egoism of one's superficial self involves
a process  of transcendence.  As in the case of philosophical
counseling, we may see this  transcendence  not only in terms
of the aim of going beyond the self, but also in terms of the
methods which seek to leap beyond the psychological  level of
existence without meddling with, or manipulating it.
    The  Zen  way  is  not  to dwell  on these  psychological
factors and their personal sources and manifestations. Rather
it  involves  a  turning  away  from  these,  it  is  through
zazen-not   through   psychological introspection--that   the
individual goes beyond the psychological self.  "The practice
of Zen is body and mind casting  off"(Hokyoki, trans.Waddell,
p.  131).  "Forgetting  our  feelings", not  analyzing  their
origin is the way to transcendence. (Chan, 1963 p. 428) Dogen
instructs  his students to devote themselves  fully to zazen:
'If you just harmonize your minds at first it will be easy to
cast  aside  both  your  bodies  and  the  world  (Shobogenzo
Zuimonki, trans.  Masunaga, 1978, p. 27).  Or in the words of
Sekiso:  "When   a  state  of  perfect   motionlessness   and
unawareness is obtained all the signs of life will depart and
also every trace  of limitation  will vanish...  There is but
one straight passage open and unobstructed through and


P.289


through"(Suzuki, 1983, p.47).
    The history  of Zen Buddhism  is a testimony  to the fact
that transcendence  is indeed possible through this "straight
passage". Many have transcended their psychological needs and
desires  and  attained  enlightenment  without  psychological
understanding.  That is, one's true selfhood  can be attained
without  the individual  delving into personal  psychological
causes   of,  and   reasons   for   his  specific   cravings,
attachments, fears, etc.  Pure  Zen  practice  sufficed.  But
should   this  be  a  lesson  for  philosophical   counseling
regarding its potential to facilitate transcendence?

  CAN PHILOSOPHICAL COUNSELING LEAD TO SELF-TRANSCENDENCE?

     There  is no doubt  that philosophical  self-examination
has led to selftranscendence. We noted Tolstoy as evidence of
this. But he, of course, is not the only one. Kierkegaard and
some   other   great   writers   have   revealed   how  their
philosophical encounters and self-reflections were intimately
tied  to deep  changes  and transformations  in their  way of
being.  One may, however, argue  that these  were exceptional
individuals.  The question  remains whether those individuals
who come  to seek  counseling  are also  able to attain  such
transcendence  through the guidance  that they can receive in
philosophical counseling. In briefly addressing this question
here I will focus on the existence of psychological obstacles
to  change.   Our  philosophical   life  resides   within   a
psychological  substratum, and the latter  may set limits  on
the possibility  of our philosophical  development.  Would it
not then be necessary to directly modify the psychological in
order to facilitate the philosophical? Would awareness of the
psychological  influences  be required? As we have seen, such
direct  psychological  modification  and awareness  have been
considered unnecessary in Zen.
    In part, the answer  to this question  will have to await
the accumulation of a literature of philosophical counseling
case and outcome studies. It is important to be aware, however,
that this literature  would  have  to provide information not
only on the degree to which philosophical coun-


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seling   has   allowed   the  individual   to  overcome   his
psychological  tendencies, but  also  to provide  information
regarding   the  obstacles   to  such  overcoming   in  those
individuals  whose psychology  continued to pull them in ways
contradictory  to the ones they chose  on the basis  of their
philosophical    understanding.     Perhaps    those    whose
psychological tendencies notably interfere would benefit from
some psychological understanding for the release necessary to
then proceed  along  their  chosen  path.  It may further  be
wondered  whether this path would not be applicable  to those
who fail to transcend  through  Zen practice  as well.  While
many  may have  attained  their  true Buddha  nature  through
purely traditional Zen practice, we must inquire into whether
more can be done for those  who did not attain  this, whether
those   who  failed   could   not  have  cleared   away   the
psychological   obstacles   that   lie  in  their   path   to
transcendence through some kind of psychological treatment.
    While  we await the accumulation  of sufficient  data, we
may   allow   ourselves   some   speculation   based   on  an
understanding  of the nature of philosophical counseling.  It
is clear  that philosophical  counseling  does not offer  the
counselee  the  same  optimal  conditions  for a drastic  and
comprehensive  shift  away  from  one's  psychology  that Zen
offers.  The counseling process does not provide affiliation,
social order, community, or any other kind of supporting  and
guiding comprehensive framework. Nor does it offer or promise
the individual  a definite  place into which to transcend, so
to speak, analogous to the enlightened state promised in Zen.
The counseling process also does not offer a specific type of
truth.   It  does  not  point  in  a  specific  direction  of
transcendence, it does not clear a specific  path along which
the counselee  can stride on his way to going beyond himself.
While  it does  constitute  a way of searching  for the right
way-through philosophical self understanding-the  search is a
lone one and there is no knowing  where  it will lead to.  It
would   seem  that  under  these   circumstances,  where  the
individual  is  left  solely  with  his  own  philosophically
informed will with which to face the psychological tendencies
which  he  wishes  to overcome, the  potential  influence  of
psychological tendencies is great relative to their influence
on the Zen


P.291


practitioner. Under such circumstances it may be necessary to
integrate  methods which operate directly on the individual's
psychology.
    It should perhaps  be noted here that these circumstances
are  not related  to the  nature  of philosophy  per  se.  In
ancient Greece, where philosophy did offer both community and
a specific  truth, it would seem that psychological  measures
were not necessary. Without utilizing psychological analysis,
the philosophies  of that time had a profound  impact  on the
life  of the  individual  as  well  as  on his  transcendence
(Hadot, 1995).

DOES    PSYCHOLOGICAL     INTERVENTION     INTERFERE     WITH
SELF-TRANSCENDENCE?

    While  it may  turn  out  to  be  necessary  to integrate
psychological   methods  into  philosophical   counseling  if
transcendence  is  to  occur, we must  examine  whether  from
another  direction  such  integration  would  not impede  the
philosophical  process  of transcendence.  Elsewhere  (Blass,
1994, in press)I have  described  how  one can relate  to the
individual's   psychology  without  necessarily  viewing  the
individual's  selfhood in terms of psychological  mechanisms.
In  principle,  then,  it  is  possible   to  relate  to  the
individual's  psychological  processes  and  take  them  into
account, while seeing  the essence  of his selfhood  in terms
of, say, Zen  or philosophical  counseling.  This  does  not,
however, necessarily  mean  that  in practice, focusing  on a
psychological  understanding  would  not interfere  with  the
maintenance  of a philosophical  counseling stance.  Clearly,
the nature of thinking involved  in psychoanalysis  is not of
the  kind  that  would  be  conducive, at the  moment  of its
occurrence, to the state  of mind  sought  through  Zen.  One
cannot maintain a Zen-type  attitude while also introspecting
psychoanalytically.  It would seem, in fact, to be quite  the
opposite.  Psychoanalysis  zooms in on just those things that
Zen wishes  to forget  and cast off.  But does this apply  to
philosophical  counseling  too? Does a psychological  kind of
thinking and experiencing oppose the process of philosophical
counseling?
    This  is a very  difficult  question.  On the  one  hand,
psychological


P.292


exploration  and understanding, while clearly different  from
those of philosophy  (despite some overlap), are not alien to
them. To be sure, they involve the application of a different
body of knowledge  and require thinking  in terms of personal
causes  rather  than in terms of conceptual  connections  and
similar  philosophical  manners  of thought, they  involve  a
search  for  the  psychological   sources   of  the  person's
assumptions rather than an examination of their tenability or
their logical implications  they would not regard incoherence
as  an   impetus   to  a  better   formulation,  but   to  an
understanding  of its underlying  causes, e.g., understanding
of  the  conflictual  ideas  that  are  responsible  for  the
incoherence. Nevertheless, despite these differences, the two
do not appear to be incommensurable. It would appear that the
temporary shift from a philosophical  to a psychological kind
of thought  would not limit the individual's  ability to then
direct   his   thoughts   back   for  further   philosophical
exploration.  That is, given the individual's  choice to view
himself  philosophically  and  accordingly  to  embark  on  a
process  of self-understanding  of a philosophical  kind, one
could  view  the turn  to psychology  as a kind  of releasing
process that would then allow the individual  to be more free
and  open  to philosophical  thinking  and especially  to the
application of that thinking to one's life.
    In   contrast,   shifting    back   and   forth   between
contradictory  perspectives,  as  in  the  case  of  Zen  and
psychological exploration, would seem to be more complicated,
although  there still remains  the possibility  that for some
people  there would  be no choice.  Perhaps  it would  be for
those  of whom Dogen  says: "You  may say that you understand
but still cannot give up certain  things  and practice  zazen
while  holding  on to various  attachments.  If you take this
attitude you sink into delusion" (Shobogenzo Zuimonki, trans.
Masunaga, 1978, p.8).  For those  who "still  cannot  give up
certain   things",  psychological   understanding   of  their
childhood, or of their  current  needs  and motivations  that
underlie  these attachments  may be the way to overcome  them
and to continue toward enlightenment rather than falling into
delusion.
    On the other hand, there are potential dangers associated
with  the  shift  from  a  philosophical  to  a psychological
encounter with the individual.


P.293


The focus on psychological  motivations and needs is a source
of perpetual doubt of the truth of one's stance in the world.
When  one searches  for psychological  explanations  of one's
conceptions, there is a tendency  to question the reasons for
their appearance, their authenticity, and consequently  their
validity.  While  there  may be value  to this  doubt, it may
impede the development  of certain ingredients  that are very
important  to the philosophical  process of transcendence.  I
refer  here  to  two  ingredients.  One  is  faith  in  one's
potential   to  come  in  touch   with  some  truth,  in  the
possibility of encountering  (an aspect of) a reality that is
not merely a solipsistic  product  of one's inner psychology.
If an individual having an elusive contact with such faith is
suddenly immersed in psychological doubt, it is possible that
that important contact would be lost. The other ingredient is
a kind of silence.  In order to transcend oneself one must be
attuned  to the sound  that  comes  from  beyond, the guiding
sound that comes  from the whole  of reality, as Jaspers  put
it.  But if the noise of inner doubt is overbearing  then our
ears may be deafened.
    The focus on psychological  motivations and needs may not
only deafen  us, but may also blind us, blind us to what lies
outside   of   our   psychological   selves.    Psychological
introspection  is indeed that-a turn of one's glance inwards,
inwards  to  one's  needs,  desires,  wishes,  sensitivities,
jealousies, etc.  There is the possibility  that this inwards
glance would come at the expense of looking beyond ourselves,
of turning to the Other, of turning to Being. It is not clear
that  the  mere  awareness   that  one's   ultimate   aim  is
self-transcendence  is sufficient  to counteract  the pull of
the inwardly-directed psychological perspective, and keep one
on the path of the philosophical quest.
    Ultimately, it is perhaps  with awareness  of the dangers
to  the  philosophical  quest  that  psychological   measures
could,and maybe  even  should, be integrated.  The self-doubt
and  self-focusedness  that  psychological  awareness  brings
about-while  being  potential  threats  to one's  tie  to the
beyond-are  also potential  safeguards  against  living  in a
philosophical world which is detached from one's actual life.
They  prevent  living  in  a world  of ideas  that  does  not
authentically reflect the way in which one


P.294


relates to the Other, or to whatever lies beyond oneself.  An
example of this would be an individual living in a conceptual
world governed by ideas of the unity of Being, unaware of the
fact that his relationships  to others are actually  governed
by self-concern.  Focusing  on one's  motives  and needs  and
recognizing  them for what they  are, as well  as questioning
and  doubting  oneself  psychologically, may  be a source  of
humble  awareness to how one is actually standing in the world.
It may allow the individual to see how he is not fully living
what he believes  to be his conceptual  world. It may then also
assist by clearing away the psychological impediments  to
living that world. Thus despite its dangers, psychological
awareness may also serve as a means of protection against
transcendence in bad faith.

                     CONCLUSION

    To assist an individual  in his path toward transcendence
is a great  and difficult  task.  It will  lake  time  before
philosophical  counseling  finds the best way to attain  this
aim.  As it works  toward  the development  of its own unique
framework,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  philosophical
awareness  and change.  Further comparison  of where this new
field  stands  in relation  to other more ancient  traditions
which  aim  at  transcendence,  such  as  Zen,would  also  be
valuable.

                    NOTES

1. See  Blass,  in  press, for  further  elaboration  of  the
   distinction between the self as a psychological entity and
   the self as a philosophical one.
2. This view of man transcending  himself  in order to become
   man throug a philosophical listening to reality should not
   be  confused  with  Sartre's  view  of transcendence.  For
   Sartre, transcendence  is a process  whereby  man  creates
   himself-"Existence precedes essence". Gabriel      Marcel,
   criticizes  this  misuse   of  the   term   transcendence.
   "Transcendence",  he  argues, cannot  merely  mean  "going
   beyond", but rather must stand in opposition to immanence.
   (Marcel, 1969, p.48). Sartre's transcendence does not take
   man beyond the immanent, does not lead man beyond himself,
   and thus in many ways remains diametrically opposed to the
   position   of  Jaspers,  Marcel,  and   the   transcendent
   conception of philosophical counseling.

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