.
p.101
In the thirtieth chapter of the celebrated Ch'an
Buddhist collection "Chingte ch'uan-teng lu"(a)(1)
one finds a number of short texts of the gaatha
(chia-t'a) (b) type(2) composed by various Ch'an
masters. Among these often highly abstruse "songs"
(ke)(c) is included one called "Hsin-ming"(d) (Mind
Inscription),(3) which is attributed to Fa-jung(e)
(594-657),(4) the First Patriarch of the early Ch'an
Buddhist denomination commonly known as the Niu-t'ou
School(f) after the name of the mountain where the
master dwelt,(5) Before going on to a discussion of
the text and its contents let us first take a brief
look at the author and iris brand of Ch'an Buddhism.
Traditionally Fa-jung is regarded as a direct
disciple of Tao-hsin(g) (580-651), (6) the fourth
Patriarch of Chinese Ch'an tracing its line of
transmission back to Bodhidharma(h) (d. ca. 538
A.D.), (7) but recent research has shown several
problems concerning the verification of this
claim.(8) In Fa-jung's oldest biography to be found
in Tao-hsuan's (596-667) (9) Hsu kao-seng
ch'uan(i)(10) nothing whatsoever is mentioned about
Tao-hsin, and in Tao-hsin's biography contained in
the same collection, we find no mentioning of Fa-jung
either.(11) The earliest claim connecting Fa-jung
with the Fourth Patriarch first comes across in the
memorial inscription Jun-chou He-lin Ssu ku
Ching-shan Ta-shih pci-ming(j) (12) dedicated to the
Niu-t'ou master Hsuan-su(k) (668-752), (13) composed
by the famous literature Li Hua(l) (?-ca. 766).(14)
In the memorial inscription on the stele of
Hsuan-su's disciple, Tao-ch'in(m) (714-792) (15) the
claim is repeated.(16) As late as 829 the scholar Liu
Yu-hsi(n) (772-842) (17) wrote the inscription
"Niu-t'ou Shan ti i-tsu Jung Ta-shih hsin-t'a chi"(o)
(18) for the new memorial stupa for Fa-jung that had
been set up on Niu-t'ou Shan following the school's
rise to prominence during the second half of the 8th
century.(19) All these inscriptions and the later
biographies contained in the standard Ch'an
collections of the late T'ang-early Sung (9-10th
century) such as the "Chodang chi? "(20) and the
"Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu"(21) all perpetuate the
claim making Fa-jung a dharma heir of Tao-hsin.(22)
p.102
According to Fa-jung's biography in the Hsu
kao-seng ch'uan he was of the Wei family and a native
of Yen-ling(q) in Jun-Chou, (r) present day
Chen-chiang in the southern part of Kiangsu Province.
As a young man he studied Confucianism and Taoism but
later he became dis-illusioned with these belief
systems and turned towards Buddhism. He first studied
under a monk called Kuei Fa-shih(s) (n.d.)(23) on Mao
Shan(t) to the southeast of Nanking(u) also in
Kiangsu. He penetrated the prajnaapaaramitaa
doctrines of the San-lun School(v)(24) and later
practised the Chih-kuan(w) ('samatha-vipa'syana)
system of the T'ien-t'ai(x) School.(25) After Fa-jung
had become a master in his own right, he went to
Jun-chou (Nanking) in 643 and settled in the Yu-hsi
Temple(y) on the southern slope of Niu-t'ou Shan.(26)
Here he lived in seclusion in a cave behind the
temple proper; and it was during this time that he is
said to have been visited by Tao-hsin and became his
disciple.(27) Following his seclusion in the cave he
attracted a large number of followers teaching at
several locations in the region. In 657 he passed
away at the age of 63.(28) After the master's death
the school supposedly was continued by a monk called
Chih-yen(z) (600-677) , (29) however it is rather
questionable that Chih-yen was a disciple of Fa-jung.
In the "Hsu kao-seng ch'uan" there is nothing to
substantiate this claim.(30)
The learned Ch'an and Hua-yen(aa) master
Kuei-feng Tsung-mi(ab) (780-841) (31) critically
treated the doctrines of the Niu-t'ou School in
several of his works. Through this characterization
one is given an insight into the cardinal teachings
of a highly radical madhyaamika (chung-tao) (ac)
oriented denomination of Ch'an Buddhism.(32) The
hall-mark of this school was an emphasis on universal
emptiness" (hsu-k'ung)(ad) or 'suunyataa in a direct
and practical way of application. The basic doctrines
of the Niu-t'ou School was summed up by Tsung-mi as
follows:
Secondly there is the school of utter
annihilation and nondwelling, that is to say
all phenomena (worldly and holy inclusive)
are all like illusions, completely
non-existent. Fundamentally empty stillness
does not take its beginning in nothingness;
even the wisdom with which one reaches
emptiness can not be obtained. In the
sameness of Dharmadhaatu there are neither
Buddhas nor sentient beings. Dharmadhaatu is
merely a designated name. As the mind does
not have any existence of
p.103
its own, who can speak about Dharmadhaatu? In
non-cultivation there is no cultivator and as
the Buddha is non-existent there is no
Buddha(hood). Let us suppose that there is a
Dharma which is higher than Nirvaana, then I
say that this would be like an illusion.
There is no Dharma that can be grasped, and
no Buddha (hood) that can be attained. If
there is anything that can be accomplished
(at all) , then it is all delusion and
falsehood. If one is able to penetrate into
this, then fundamentally there is not a thing
to which the mind can attach.(33)
All phenomena including the Buddhist Dharma are
essentially without own being, i.e. they do not
possess any inherent mark (fa)(ae) of existence and
are therefore empty and non-existent. This very lack
of inherent existence is at the same time the
"nirvanic" imprint on all phenomena, meaning that
everything fundamentally is in the absolute state of
suchness (chen-ju) .(af) So far there is nothing
strange or deviant about the Niu-t'ou teachings, they
are quite striaght-forward San-lun doctrine. However
the practical conclusions reached by Fa-jung and his
followers are extreme when seen from the viewpoint of
Tsung-mi and other "orthodox" monks. The extreme
conclusions concerning the suunyaata doctrine as
propagated by the Niu-t'ou School can be clearly
discerned in the Hsin-ming. Because all phenomena are
baseless and illusory it is neither necessary to
cultivate any virtues nor to purify oneself. All one
needs to do is to maintain a non-clinging mind free
of mentation. When this is achieved the illusory
phenomena will cease to exert any influence on the
adept and he will enjoy direct communion with
absolute reality, entering into the highest principle
(chih-li) .(ag) One of the key-concepts in this
enlightenment process is to be unmindful of the
feelings (wang-hsing),(ah) which then will result in
their natural cessation. As any notion of the
employment of upaaya (fang-pien)(ai) is absent from
the Niut'ou doctrines, it is clear that they tended
to overlook perhaps the most vital aspect of the
madhyaamika doctrine. This aspect is the two truths
(erh-ti),(aj) i.e. the absolute truth (chen-ti)(ak)
and the relative truth (shih-su ti);(al) the Niu t'ou
doctrine paid attention to the absolute level at the
expense of the relative level. This one-sided
emphasis on emptiness and cessation naturally exposed
the school to attacks from other Buddhist monks,
causing Tsung-mi to characterize the Niu-t'ou School
as one following a doctrine of
p.104
"utter annihilation and non-dwelling" (min-chueh
wu-chi).(am)(34) Following Tsung-mi the Ch'an master
Huang-po Hsi-yun(an) (d. ca. 850) (35) later
criticized Fa-jung for having been unable to grasp
the ultimate truth, obviously referring to his
supposed onesided understanding of emptiness.(36)
So far the Hsin-ming is the only existing text
which is directly attributed to Fa-jung.(37) Another
text, the Chueh-kuan lun,(ao)(38) which the Japanese
scholar Yanagida Seizan(ap) holds to be by Fa-jung or
at least by one of his close disciples, does
admittedly bear close resemblance to the "Hsin-ming"
and might very well be a work from Fa-jung's
hand.(39) However even though the two texts do not
always use identical stockphrases there seems to be
little doubt that they are both the product, if not
by the same author, then at least by followers of the
same type of Ch'an doctrine. Besides the distinct
"absolutistic" madhyaamika or San-lun view one of the
most pronounced identical features of the texts is
the clear "taoistic" flavour which permeates them
throughout. When comparing the doctrinal stances of
the two texts one's associations are invariably led
in the direction of the "Tao-te ching"(aq) and the
"Chuang-tzu".(ar) The concepts of non-action
(wu-wei)(as) and no-mind (wu-hsin)(at) appear several
times in both works and the unBuddhist stress on
spontaneity (tzu-jan) (au) at the expense of the
vinaya (ssu-fen)(av) is conspicuous. Indeed, whole
passages of the "Chueh-kuan lun" appear to have been
taken right out of the "Tao-te ching".(40) From
Fajung's biography in the "Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu",
most of which is taken up by a dialogue between the
master and a certain Prince Po-ling(aw) (n.d.); we
find the same clear San-lun/madhyaamika teaching as
the "Hsin-ming" and the "Chueh-kuan lun".(41) However
it is not possible to assert whether the "Ching-te
ch'uan-teng lu" presentation of Fa-jung's teaching
really is by him or whether it is a later
composition.(42)
When seen in the light of the "Hsin-ming", the
"Chueh-kuan lun" and the dialogue with the Prince in
"Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu" we might say that
Tsung-mi's description and criticism of the Niu-t'ou
School's rather extreme 'suunyata view is partly
justified. However it is quite clear too that
Tsung-mi in his criticism tended to over-look the
fact that Fa-jung and his followers included a wide
range of standard Mahaayaana doctrines in their
Teachings too. In the "Hsin-ming", for example, one
finds an obvious use of the doctrine of
dharmadhatu-origination (fa-chieh hsing-ch'i),(ax)(43)
and in the Chueh-kuan lun one likewise finds
influence from the Hua-yen ching(ay)(44)
p.105
and the wei-mo ching.(az)(45)
As to the problem whether the "Hsin-ming" is
actually by Fa-jung we do not have any definitive
proof. All in all we must conclude that there are a
number of important points such as style and contents
which clearly allow us to associate the text with
Fa-jung and the Niu-t'ou School. The close doctrinal
resamblance with the "Chueh-kuan lun" and Fa-jung's
biographical entry in the "Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu"
be over-looked. Furthermore the teachings as
contained in the "Hsin-ming" correspond closely with
Tsungmi's characterization of the Niu-t'ou School.
The main points of doubt concerning the genuiness of
the text lies with the facts that it is included in a
relatively late Ch'an collection, i.e: the "Ching-te
ch'uan-reng lu" from 1004; therefore it might be
another example of pious contribution. Secondly, we
do not find any reference to the text in earlier
Ch'an materials.(46) In this connection it must be
noted that the line of thought as presented by the
author of the "Hsin-ming" is not very close to that
of Fa-jung's supposed master Tao-hsin. Actually it is
doctrinally a far cry from the teachings of Tao-hsin
as presented in his "Ju-tao an-hsin yao fang-pien
fa-men",(ba)(47) which is a point adding to the
argument that Fa-jung probably never had any direct
contact with Tao-hsin and his line of transmission.
Interestingly the "Hsin-hsin ming"(bb)(48) attributed
to the Third Patriarch Seng-ts'an(bc) (d. 606)(49)
in the Bodhidharma line, has many points in common
with the "Hsin-ming", both as regards contents and
style.(50) Likewise when reading the "Hsin-ming" one
overlook the close affinity which the doctrines of
the text has with those of Wu-chu(bd) (714-774)(51)
of the Pao-t'ang School(be) and with some parts of
the teachings of Shen-hui(bf) (670-672)(52) of the
Ho-tse School.(bg)
The "Hsin-ming" as we have it today exist in two
versions. The one used here is that of the "Ching-te
ch'uan-teng lu" and the other can be found in the
t'ung-shu(bh) collection "Ch'uan T'ang-wen".(bi)(53)
The two versions do not deviate greatly and some of
the different characters in the latter version appear
to be misprints. It seems as if the "Ch'uan
T'ang-wen" version has been taken from the "Ching-te
ch'uan-teng lu" version, however a seperate
transmission of the text can not be ruled out, and in
that case the former version might very well be the
oldest of the two.
UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN
p.106
Appendix:
MIND INSCRIPTION: A TRANSLATION
The nature of the mind is un-born.
Why should it be necessary to know this?
Fundamentally there is not one single phenomenon; who
then can speak about defilement and purification?
There is no end to coming and going, and no matter
how much one seeks, one will never realize it!
When everything is inactive, then the bright
stillness will manifest by itself.
Before one it will be like emptiness, and thereby one
will know how to dispose with confused doctrines.
Distinguishing clearly the circumstances one will
illumine the dark and hidden.
If the One Mind(54) is obstructed, then all the
dharmas(55) will not have a penetrating effect.
Spontaneously coming and going, what use is it
exhausting oneself?
As life has the mark of the un-born, it will illumine
the oneness.(56)
If one wishes to obtain purity of mind, then one must
diligently cultivate no-mind.
To have no mental reflections high and low, this more
than anything else is the marvelous!
One will know the dharma (the Buddha's teaching)
through non-knowing, as this non-knowing will
know the essentials.
By grasping the mind and maintaining stillness,(57)
one will still not be able to leave behind the
sickness (of clinging).(58)
In life and death one must forget that which one is
attached to, then there and then the fundamental
nature (will manifest, shine forth etc.).
The highest principle has no explanation, (one will
be able to attain to it without) getting rid of
anything and without restraining oneself.
Spiritual penetration and responding to affairs will
constantly take place there and then, before one
there will not be a thing, and "not a thing" will
be a matter of course.(59)
p.107
If you do not strive for the Mirror of Wisdom, then
its essence will be wonderously empty of itself.
Thinking arises and thinking goes away, before and
after there is no discrimination.
The latter thought is not produced as the former is
cut off by itself.
In the Three Worlds(60) there is not a thing: neither
mind nor Buddha.
All living beings are (products) of no-mind, and
depend upon no-mind to come into existence.(61)
Discriminating between worldly and holy will cause
vexations in abundance.
Constantly calculating and making plans amounts to
searching for the truth while turning one's back
to reality.
If one puts an end to the two extremes (of being and
non-being), then one will be both bright and
clear.
It is not necessary to observe enfantile practices
diligently.
Through awareness one will gain knowledge, and when
seeing the net (of samsara) one will turn around
and stop.
In Samaadhi(chi-chi)(bj) there is nothing to be seen,
for in a dark room there is no movement.
In awareness (hsing-hsing)(bk) there is no falsity,
in samaadhi there is clear brightness.
The myriad shapes are all true, all having the
majestetic one characteristica.(62)
Going and coming,sitting and standing be grasped.
With no fixed place, who (can be said) to come
and go?
No coming together and no breaking up, neither slowly
nor hasty.
The bright stillness is selfso and words speak about
it!
If in the mind there is nothing different from the
mind, one does not have to stop desire.
As its nature is empty, it will disappear if it is
allowed to drift on.
Neither pure nor defiled, neither shallow nor deep.
Originally the past is not, and just now,the present
is not!
Just now there is non-abiding and that is the
original Mind.(63)
When one does not hold on to the origin, then the
origin will be present.
Bodhi originally is, (that is why) it is not
necessary to maintain it.
p.108
Vexations are fundamentally non-existing, therefore
it is not necessary to do away with them!
The spiritual wisdom shines forth by itself, and the
myriad phenomena return (to the source).
Nothing to revert to and nothing to receive.
Cut off opinions and forget about the precepts!
The Four Virtues(64) are un-born, and the Three
Bodies are fundamentally existing.(65)
The Six Roots(66) (just) face the circumstances and
(clear or direct) perception has nothing to do
with consciousness.
Then the mind will have nothing wrong and the ten
thousand causes will directly harmonize.
The mind and the feelings are basically of the same
source, they coexist without interfering with
each other.
The un-born is in accordance with phenomena, together
they dwell and rest in the dark.
Enlightenment comes from that which is not
enlightened, therefore enlightenment is
non-enlightenment!
Gain and loss are like the two sides of a coin. Who
can then speak about good and bad?
All that is caused, is originally the product of the
un-born.
The knowing mind is not the Mind, (the true Mind is
something which) neither disease nor medicine can
effect.
In times of confusion just let things go their way,
because when awakening is accomplished, they will
not be different (from your self).
Fundamentally nothing can be grasped; now what will
you throw away?
Speaking of existence is to give in to demons, for
with words empty images arise!
Do not wipe out worldly feelings. The only teaching
that you should be concerned about, is how to do
away with ideas!
Ideas will be annihilated by no-mind, and mental
states will be cut off by non-activity.
There is no use trying to verify emptiness,
spontaneously it will shine forth!
p.109
Extinguishing both life and death, the profound Mind
enters the (ultimate) principle.
Just open your eyes and behold the forms, letting
your mind go along with the arising
circumstances.
If the mind abides in no-circumstances, then the
circumstances abide in no-mind.
Then when the mind is about to annihilate the
circumstances, they will go along with the
annihilation.
The mind will be quiet and the circumstances just the
same. One will neither have to let go nor to hold
on.
When circumstances go along with the mind they will
be extinguished, and the mind which follows
circumstances is nothingness.
Both abide in the un-born, still purity and empty
brightness!
Awakening appears like a shadow in the mind's water,
which is constantly clear.
The nature (or disposition) of the virtuous is like
stupidity, for it does not set up any separation
between this and that.
They are not moved by either grace or dishonour, and
do not choose a (fixed) place to dwell.(67)
If all causes are put to rest, then one will cease to
worry about them!
If one does not discriminate, then an eternal day can
be like a night, and an eternal night can be like
a day.(68)
When seen from the outside it seems as if one is
wayward and stupid, however within, the mind is
vacant and in communion with reality.
Adverse conditions will not move one, and one will
have the power of an accomplished being.
There will be neither seer nor the seen, then that
non-seeing will be perpetually manifested.
Penetrating everything, constantly being everywhere.
Thinking will cause confusion, and confusion will
give rise to all kinds of emotions.
If by grasping the mind one tries to stop agitation,
then with this movement the mind will be even
more active.(69)
The myriad phenomena have no base, there is only the
One Door.(70)
This is the door of neither entering nor leaving,
of neither stillness nor disturbance.
p.110
The wisdom of 'Sraavakas and Pratyeka-buddhas can not
fathom this.
In reality not one thing exists, the wonderful wisdom
alone remains. Circumstances are fundamentally
empty.
It is not something which the mind can exhaust.
True enlightenment is non-enlightenment, and real
emptiness is not empty!
A11 the Buddhas of the Three Times(71) teach this
doctrine. This teaching is like a particle of
dust, worlds as numerous as sandgrains in the
Ganges are contained therein!
If one does not occupy oneself with everything, then
the peaceful mind will have nowhere to abide.
The peaceful mind will be non-abiding, and the empty
brightness will manifest by itself!
The quiet stillness is un-born, and one will be free
to roam in all directions.
Whatever one does there will be nothing to obstruct
one. In motion and in rest, all will be equal.
The sun of prajnaa is still, the light of samaadhi is
bright;
(They are) the bright park of no mark (laksana) and
the clear city of nirvaana.
In all causes one should be un-mindful of the fruit;
it can be likened to the quality of the spiritual
samaadhi.
Do not set up platforms for teaching; but take a
peaceful nap in an empty house.(72)
One will find happiness in the Way, with plenty of
space to roam about in True Reality.
Nothing to do, nothing to obtain, and depending upon
nothing, the self will manifest.
The Four Virtues(73) and the Six Paraamitaas(74) all
belong to the path of the One Vehivle.
When the mind in this way is not produced, then all
the phenomena also will not be wrong.
Knowing that life is un-born, before one it will
constantly remain thus.
Those with wisdom will know this, but no amount of
words can explain this kind of awakening!
p.111
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my thanks to the following people,
who in various ways helped me with this article:
First my thanks go to Mr. Morten Schlutter of East
Asiatic Institute, University of Copenhagen for
reading through the manuscript and contributing many
helpful suggestions. Next my thanks go to Mr. Poul
Andersen, our local specialist in Taoist studies,
also of East Asiatic Institute, for his critique and
suggestions concerning the translation. Last but not
least thanks to Miss Charlotte Rohde of the Royal
Danish Library for her painstaking efforts in
locating useful material for my study.
ABBREVIATIONS
CDC "Chodang chip". Yanagida version.
CKL "Chueh-kuan lun". Tokiwa version.
CSTP "Chin-shih ts'ui-pien". Shanghai, 1893.
CTL "Taisho version, 2076".
CTS "Chiu T'ang-shu". Peking, 1978.
CTW "Ch'uan T'ang-wen." Taipei, 1960.
HKSC "Hsu kao-seng ch'uan, T. version, 2060".
HM "Hsin-ming". CTL version.
HTC "Hsu tsang-ching". Lung-men reprint.
HTS "Hsin T'ang-shu". Peking, 1978.
IB "Indogaku bukkyo gaku".
JCP "Journal of Chinese Philosophy.
JIABS "Journal of International Association of
Buddhist Studies".
P. "Pelliot Collection".
PEW "Philosophy East West".
T. "Taisho Daizokyo".
TP. "T'oung Pao".
TWT "T'ang-wen ts'ui". Taipei, 1973.
p.112
NOTES
1. T. 2076. Compiled by the monk Tao-yuan (n.d.)
from the Fa-yen School in 1004 A.D.. The work was
published in 1011 A.D.
2. Ibid.ch. 30, pp. 456c-467a.
3. Ibid. pp.457b-458a.
4. Biography in HKSC (T. 2060) ch. 26, pp.
603c-605b, in CDC ch. 3, pp. 51a53a, and in CTL
ch. 4, pp. 227c-228b. For a translation of
Fa-jung's biography from CTL see Chang
Chung-yuan: Original Teachings of Ch'an Buddhism.
N.Y., 1969, pp. 3-11, 17-26. For a modern
treatment in Japanese of Fa-jung and his teaching
see Hiromine Kinami: Gozu-shuu okeru ichikosatsu.
In: IB XXVIII, 1, 1979, pp. 186-87 (1) and IB
XXIX, 1, 1980, pp. 146-47 (II) . The most
comprehensive study so far in a Western language
is John R. McRae's The Ox-Head School of Chinese
Ch'an Buddhism; From Early Ch'an to the Golden
Age. In Studies in Ch'an and Hua-yen, ed. by
Robert M. Gimello & Peter N. Gregory, Honolulu,
1983, pp. 169-252. McRae's article contains a
very useful review of Japanese studies of the
Niu-t'ou School and its doctrines up to ca. 1979.
5. A description of the mountain and its temples
including photoes can be found in Buddhist
Monuments in China (Shina bukkyo shiseki
kinenshu) by Daijo Tokiwa and Tadashi Sekino,
Vol. 4, Tokyo, 1937, pp. 17-19. · The mountain
was visited around the same time as the Japanese,
i.e. in the 1920's, by the Danish architect
Johannes Pripp-Moller, who described it in his
monumental work Chinese Buddhist Monasteries.
Copenhagen & London, 1937, pp. 183, 186, 194. A
present day note on the mountain is included in
Barry Till's In Search of Old Nanking. Hong Kong,
1982, pp. 75-76.
6. Biography in HKSC (T. 2060), ch. 26, pp. 606bc,
in CDC ch. 2, pp. 41b-42a, and in CTL (T. 2076),
ch. 3, pp. 222b-223a. For a very thorough
treatment of this key-figure in early Chinese
Ch'an see David W. Chappell's The Teachings of
the Fourth Ch'an Patriarch Tao-hsin (580-651). In
Early Ch'an in China and Tibet ed. by Lewis
Lancaster and Whalen Lai. Berkeley, 1983, pp.
89-129.
7. Biography in HKSC ch. 16, pp. 551bc, CDC ch. 2,
pp. 32a-39a, and CTL ch. 3, pp. 217a-220b. For a
modern study on Bodhidharma in Japanese see
Bunyuu Matsuda's Bodaidaruma ron. In IB Vol.
XXVII, 2, 1978, pp. 595-600, a critically
annotated edition in Japanese of the discourses
attributed to Bodhidharma can be found in Seizan
Yanagida (ed. & transl.): Daruma no goroku. Zen
no goroku Series Vol. 1. Tokyo, 1969.
8. See Chappell pp. 103-104, note 11.
9. Biography in SKSC (T. 2061) , ch. 14, pp.
790b-791b. He finished compiling the HKSC in 664
A.D.
10. HKSC (T. 2060), ch. 26, pp. 603c-605b. In this
work Fa-jung's biography is included in the
hsi-ch'an section. A much shorter biography
obviously based on the HKSC version can be found
in the work Hung-tsan fa-hua ch'uan (T. 2067),
p.113
ch. 3, pp. 16c-17a, by Hui-hsiang (n.d.). This
collection is dated to 667 A.D., and here Fa-jung
is represented as a master of the Lotus Sutra,
an indication of his close affinity with the
T'ien-t'ai School.
11. See note 6 above.
12. TWT ch. 64.
13. Biography in CDC ch. 3, p. 53b and CTL ch. 4, pp.
229bc.
14. Biography in CTS ch. 190 and in HTS ch. 203. For
a treatment of Li Hue's Buddhist involvement see
the author's MA. Thesis: The Relationship Between
Confucian Men of Letters and Buddhist Monks
During the Latter Half of the T'ang Dynasty: A
Study in Assimilation and Harmonization Between
Two Major Spiritual Traditions in China.
University of Copenhagen, 1983, pp. 22-26.
15. The title of this inscription is Hang-chou
Chin-shan Ssu To-chueh shih pei-ming composed by
Li Chi-fu (758-814), CTW Tao-ch'in's biography is
in CDC ch. 3, p. 53b and in CTL oh. 4, pp. 230ab.
16. CTW ch. 512.
17. Biography in CTS ch. 160. See also biographical
note in CTW ch. 610.
18. In TWT ch.64.
19. This stupa was built in 774 A.D. during the reign
of T'ai-tsung (762-779).
20. A Korean Ch'an (Son) collection of biographies
compiled in 952 A.D. by the two Korean monks
Chong and Un. For a discussion of this important
text see Paul Demieville: Le Recueil de la Salle
des Patriarches: Tsou-T'ang Tsi TP LVI, 1-3,
1970, pp. 262-286.
21. See note l.
22. See CDC ch. 3, p. 51a, and CTL ch. 4, p. 227a.
23. For a discussion of the monks under whom Fa-jung
studied see Hakuju Ui: Zenshuu shi kenkyuu. Vol.
2, Tokyo, 1939-43 (reprint 1966), pp. 511-519.
24. One of the earliest structured Buddhist
traditions in China based on the madhyaamika
philosophy of Nagaarjuna (ca. 3rd cent.). Its
status as a school of Chinese Buddhism did not
arise until far into the T'ang dynasty. For a
discussion of the lineage in the San-lun School
see Ryuuko Furusaka: Sanron gakuha ni okeru sosho
mondai. IB XVIII, 2, 1970, pp. 609-10. For
treatments of the San-lun thought and history in
English see Hsueh-li Cheng: Chi-tsang's Treatment
of Metaphysical Issues. JCP 8 (1981) , pp.
371-989, and Aaron K. Koseki: The Concept of
Practice in San-fun Thought: Chi-tsang and the
"Concurrent Insight" of the Two Truths. PEW 31,
4, 1981, pp. 449-466, and: Later Maadhyamika. in
China: Some Current Perspectives on the History
of Chinese Prajnaapaaramitaa Thought. JIABS. Vol.
5,2, 1982. The latter article is a review article
of Hirai Shun'ei's monumental work: Chuugoku
hannya kenkyuu. Tokyo, 1976.
25. One of the important Buddhist denominations in
Southern China during Suifirst half of the T'ang
period. The impotance of T'ien-t'ai meditation
practices in relation to the formulation of early
Ch'an Buddhism has still not been thoroughly
investigated, however some aspects have been
touched upon in recent
P.114
Japanese scholarship. See Kenju Komatsu: Maka
shikan no hoben. IB XXVI, 2, 1978, pp. 826-828.
Toshio Kaxama: Maka shikan To Nanshuuzen no
kankei ni tsuite. IB XXVIII,1, 1979, pp. 51-55,
Keisho Sengoku: Nangaku eshi no zenkan. IB XXXI,
1, 1982, pp. 256-58. 256-58, two articles by
Hideto Ono: Tendai Kanjin jikiho no kenkyuu. IB
XXIX, 1, 1980,pp. 326-332, and Shiki Tendai no ten
shiso. IR XXIV 1, 1975, pp. 114-118, Rosan Ikeda;
Tendai Chigi no reiho taikei. IB XXIX, 1, 1980,
pp. 37-41, and Kobaku Sakamoto: Tendai ni okeru
shizen. IB XXXI 1. 1982, pp. 259-262. Important
studies in Western languages are Leon Hurvitz:
Chih-i, an Introduction to the the and ideas of a
Chinese Buddhist Monk. MCB Vol. 12, Bruxelles,
1962; Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer: Die Identitat Der
Buddhistischen Schulent und Die Kompilation
Buddhistischer Universalgeschichren in China.
Wiesbaden, 1982; and Paul Magnin: La Vie et
l'Euvre de Huisi (515-577) . Publications de
l'Ecole Franraise D'extreme-Orient Vol. CXVI.
Paris, 1979.
26. See Tokiwa and Sekino pp. 17-19 (also note 5).
27. The first mention of the supposed meeting between
Fa-jung and Tao-hsin can be found in Kuei-feng
Tsung-mi's Yuan-chueh ching ta-hsu ch'ao (HTC
Vol. 14, p. 279b) from 823 A.D. The earlier
inscriptions only mention the lineage. See also
CDC ch. 3, pp. 51ab. The biographical entry on
Fa-jung in CTL mentions that Tao-hsin went to
Niu-t'ou Shan in "the middle of the Chen-kuan
period" (627-649 A.D.); CTL ch. p. 227a.
28. CDC ch. 3, p. 53a.
29. Biography in HKSC ch. 25, pp. 602ac. See also the
above mentioned later stele-inscriptions and the
line of transmission as given in CDC ch. 3, p.
53a.
30. This has also been noted by John R. McRae in his
The Ox-head School of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism, p.
178.
31. Biography in the stele-inscription "T'ang Ku
Kuei-feng hui sh'an-shih ch'uan-fa pei, by P'ei
Hsiu (797-870), CSTP ch. 114. For a reprint of
the original inscription see "P'ei Hsiu
tzu-t'ieh", publ. by Hsi-ch'uan jen-min ch'u-pan
she, Ch'eng-tu, 1981. See also the biographical
entries in CDC ch. 5, pp. 114a-116a and CTL ch.
13, pp. 305c-308b. For a study of the life and
Ch'an thought of this important master see Jan
Yun-hua: Tsung-mi: His Analysis of Ch'an
Buddhism. TP LVIII, 1972;pp. 1-54 for a discussion
and complete translation of Tsung-mi's Ch'an-yuan
chu-ch'uan chi tou-hsu (T. 2015) see Jeffery
Broughton: Kuei-feng Tsung-mi. The Convergence of
Ch'an and the Teachings. Ph.D. Dissertation,
Columbia University, 1975.
32. T. 2015. p. 402c, HTC Vol. 14, p. 279b, HTC Vol.
110, pp. 436d-437a.
33. Ch'an-yuan chu-ch'uan chi tu-hsu (T. 2015), p.
402c.
34. Ibid. This characterization will appear quite
fair when compared with the contents of the
Hsin-ming.
35. Biography in CDC ch. 16, pp. 309a-312a and CTL
ch. 9, pp. 266abc. For a trans-
p.115
lation of his yu-lu compiled by P'ei Hsiu, i.e.
the Ch'uan-hsin fa-yao (T. 2012) see John
Blofeld: The Zen Teaching of Huang Po. London,
1958.
36. Hsi-yun's critique of Fa-jung is found in CTL ch.
9. p. 266c.
37. In the scripture catalogues compiled by Eun
(n.d.) (T. 2168AB) and Enchin (814-889) (T. 2169,
2170, 2171, 2172, 2173) we find the titles of the
following texts bearing the name of Fa-jung: Chu
chin-kang pan-jo ching in one chapter pp. 1088,
Chu chin-kang pan-jo in two chapters pp. 1091,
Wei-mo ching chi in one chapter pp. 1091, Hua-yen
ching szu-chi in one chapter pp. 1151 In addition
to these texts several more bear the name
Niu-t'ou probably also meaning Fa-jung. If these
commentaries actually were written by Fa-jung, it
is readily understandable why we find citations
from the Vimalakiirti Suutra and the Avatamsaka
Suutra in the CKL.
In Lionel Giles's Discriptive Catalogue of the
Chinese Manuscripts from Tun-huang in the British
Museum. London, 1957, p. 129 (S. 2944) we find a
text called Jung Ch'an-shih ting-hou yin (The
Ch'an master Jung's Song Following Samaadhi),
which through further investigation might turn
out to be a work by Fa-jung too.
38. Pelliot (hereafter P.) 2732, P. 2885 and P. 2045.
A modern version, annotated and translated into
modern Japanese and English can be found in
Chueh-kuan lun. Ed. by Gishin Tokiwa. Kyoto,
1973. This book is based on the research of a
study-group under the supervision of Seizan
Yanagida at the Institute for Zen Studies in
Kyoto. In the English translation Tokiwa
translates the "kuan" (Æ[ )in the title as
"contemplation", however this author disagrees
with the rendering of "kuan" in this particular
case, finding that "views" or "opinions" as a
translation of kuan are much more in accordance
with the real meaning of the title. See also
McRae pp. 208-9 for a discussion of the meaning
of kuan.
39. Yanagida's argument for the attribution of the
Chueh-kuan lun (hereafter CKL) to Fa-jung appears
to be well documented and there can be little
doubt that the text is from his hand. See Tokiwa
pp. 2-3 and p. 23 note 7.
40. See Hsin-ming (hereafter HM) pp. 457b line 2, p.
457c line 2, p. 457c line 3, p. 457 line 12 and
p. 458a line 6, and CKL (Tokiwa version) section
III, p. 89, section VI, p. 91, section IX, p. 93
and section X, pp. 93-94. Compare fx. the opening
passage of CKL with that of Tao-te ching. The
"taoistic" touch apparent in the Niu-t'ou
doctrines should not be interpreted to mean that
this school of Ch'an was a mixture of Lao-Chuang
Taoism (wrongly called Neo-Taoism) and dhyaana
Buddhism, but should rather be seen as a genuine
Chinese Buddhist interpretation of maadhyamika
philosophy emphasising the practical realization
of universal emptiness partly expressed through
Lao-Chuang terminology. When seen from this
angle, then the Niu-t'ou doctrines constitute a
logical and direct continuation of the type of
Chinese maadhyamika evident in such a work as
Chao-lun (T. 1858) et al.
41. CTL ch. 4, pp.227b-228a.
p.116
42. The CTL as such is admittedly quite late, however
the contents of the Fa-jung biography included
therein agrees perfectly as far as doctrine goes
with that of the HM and CKL, and might very well
be at least partly genuine.
43. CTL ch. 30, p. 457c, line 6.
44. CKL section VI, p. 91.
45. Ibid, section IV, pp. 89-90.
46. See note 36.
47. T. 2837, pp. 1286c-1289b. See also the modern
Japanese version by Seizan Yanagida in Shoki no
Zenshi, 1. Zen no goroku 2. Tokyo, 1971, pp.
49-326. It has deen translated into English by
David W. Chappell in Early Ch'an in China and
Tibet, pp. 107-129.
48. CTL ch.30, pp. 457ab.
49. Biography in Pao-lin ch'uan (Zengaku gyosho Vol.
5), comp. by Seizan Yanagida, reprint 1983) ch.
8, pp. 148-154, CDC ch. 2, pp. 41ab and CTL ch.
3, pp. 211c- 212b.
50. The teaching on the unobtainability of phenomena
is identical in the two works and so is that of
non-duality. It must be noted however, that the
Hsin hsin-ming has a stronger leaning towards the
doctrine of tathaagatagarbha (fo-hsing) than the
HM.
51. Biography in the Li-tai fa-pao chi (T. 2075), pp.
185c-196b and CTL ch. 4, pp, 234b-235a.
52. Biography in CDC ch. 3, pp. 56b-57a and CTL ch.
5, pp. 245ab. A biographical treatment in French
can be found in Jacques Gernet: "Biographie du
Maitre Chen-houei de Ho-tso." Journal Asiatique,
CCXLIX, 1951, pp. 29-60.
53. CTW ch.908.
54. The Buddha Mind or Buddha Nature
(fo-hsing).(b)(1)
55. The various Buddhist methods and teachings.
56. Meaning that life as such is manifesting the
un-born or absolute. This has been presented in
the Prajnaapaaramitaahrdaya Sutra (Nsin ching,
T.250) in the following words: "Form is
emptiness, emptiness is form."
57. A type of meditation practice common in the
Northern Ch'an School of Shenhsiu (605-706 A.D.).
This method is called shou-hsin (observing the
mind).
58. If one practices in this way, according to
Fa-jung one will still be subject of dualistic
thinking.
59. The realization of suchness (tathataa).
60. 1) The world of desire, 2) the world of form and
3) the world of no-form (the formless world).
61. This is the socalled dharmadhaatu-origination, a
cardinal doctrine in the "Hua-yan ching".
62. The one characteristic or the one mark is
suchness.
63. The essential nature,the Buddha Mind.
64. 1) Permanence, 2) joy, 3) personality and 4)
purify. These Four Virtues were
p.117
expounded by the Buddha in the "Mahaaparinirvaana
Suutra'. (T 374). They are attributes of the
Buddha Nature.
65. l)Dharmakaaya, 2)Sambhogakaaya, 3)Nirmaanakaaya.
66. 1)Eye, 2) ear, 3) nose, 4) tongue, 5)body and 6)
mind (consciousness).
67. This is a very orthodox "Indian" description of
the correct behavior of a Buddhist ascetic. It is
said that some of the Niu-t'ou masters roamed
about living in the woods never settling down in
a temple. The master Niao-k'e Tao-lin (741-824)
is one such example.
68. The meaning here is not quite clear to the
translator.
69. Again a critique of the Northern Ch'an practice
of shou-hsin.
70. The direct perception of the un-born.
71. Past, present and future.
72. This is tandem with the statement in note 14.
73. See note 11.
74. The Six Paaramitaas: 1) Daana (the perfection of
giving) , 2) 'siila (the perfection of the
discipline) , 3) ksaanti (the perfection of
patience), 4) viirya (the perfection of zeal or
perseverance) , 5) dhyaana (the perfection of
meditative absorbtion) and 6) prajnaa (the
perfection of trancendental wisdom).
p.118
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