.


P.5


    For years  I have wondered  about Buddhism  in China with
both  puzzlement  and  amazement.  Puzzlement  as to why  the
Chinese  accepted  a foreign ideology, a religion, that would
sweep their already set ways of thinking  and practice, i.e.,
despite  the fact of their established  Confucian  and Taoist
traditions.  Amazement  in terms  of how the Chinese  over  a
period  of time, several  centuries  to be sure, were able to
understand  Buddhist  principles  or doctrines  in such a way
that in time they were able  to forge  ahead  with their  own
brand  of Chinese  Buddhism.  With respect  to both  aspects,
puzzlement  and  amazement,  I  certainly  do  not  have  any
complete answers for the simple reason that a good portion of
the answers are quietly buried in the sands of time.
    To the  first  aspect, puzzlement, perhaps  the  onus  of
clarifying  the situation  belongs largely  to the historians
and  related   social  scientists,  if  indeed  a  consistent
plausible story can be told. To the second aspect, amazement,
perhaps the onus of presenting  a plausible theory belongs to
the  speculative  thinkers  who  are  able  to  decipher  the
ideological   contacts  and  ongoing  dialogues,  subtle  and
abstract   as  they  necessarily   are,  and  bring  forth  a
reasonable  theory concerning  the uniqueness  of the Chinese
mind in terms of adaptation, accommodation, incorporation and
creativity.  In this  essay, I am more  concerned  about  the
aspect  of amazement  than that  of puzzlement  and will thus
proceed   accordingly   with  full  knowledge   that  a  more
comprehensive   treatment   will  have  to  be  done  by  the
cooperation  and  contributions  by scholars  throughout  the
world.


P. 6

                   I.  Continental Spirit

    We must first of all focus  on the nature  of the Chinese
mind.  This mind has unique features which many a scholar has
failed to address  properly  or to which they merely gave lip
service.  The attitude is not only myopic but damaging to any
probe  and  understanding  for, afterall, the unique  Chinese
culture or  civilization is certainly based on a unique mind.
    The best  description  I have encountered  thus far comes
from  the late  Fung Yu-lan(a) who characterized  the Chinese
mind as one endowed  with  a continental  spirit.  The more I
explore  into  the nature  of the Chinese  mind the more I am
inclined  to accept  Fung's characterization.  Of course  the
continental spirit does not explain every phase or element of
the mind, but it does, more importantly, point  out the basis
of each phase or element that makes a crucial  difference  in
the interpretation of a people, their actions and culture.
    So,   what   is   the   continental   spirit?  The   term
"continental"  depicts  a  huge  land  mass,  a  vastness, an
illimitable  nature, and the term "spirit"  is modified  with
the  same  nature, a spirit  that  is huge, large, extensive,
holistic, totalistic  and a grand  unity.  Because  of such a
spiritual   nature,  it  also   carries   with   it   certain
complementary  features  or dimensions, such  as, resiliency,
malleability,  mutuality  and,  most  significantly, constant
change  or transformation.  In consequence, when we point  to
the Chinese mind, we are focusing  on resultant  actions that
exhibit  particular  form  and content.  That  is to say, the
exhibitions  are characterized  by a full breadth, depth  and
total  change  in the  phenomenal  and  spiritual  worlds  of
individuals;  these  actions  are also expressed  in terms of
boldness,   swiftness,  magnanimity   and   holistic   mutual
involvement.
    This is the spirit that has led and guided the Chinese to
construct unbelievable  greater-than-life  monuments of human
endeavor, such as, the Great Wall, the Grand  Canal, the Ming
Tombs and the huge buried entourage  of warriors designed  to
guide the emperor's final journey to the nether world.  These
monuments could hardly come about from a lesser mind or



P.7


without a spirit to match them.  Naturally, at times.  such a
spirit  may  falter  or languor  in hubris  as witnessed  for
example   by   the   relative   inactivity,   passivity    or
incohesiveness  of the Ch'ing Government  during the European
colonial expansionism in Asia.

                II.  Tao:  The Nature of Things

    The  concept  of  the  Tao  underlies  all  existence  in
phenomenal as well as non-phenomenal manifestations indeed it
is Nature  as it is and  as it is in the making.  The Chinese
early  on depicted  the  Tao  manifestation  in terms  of the
cosmological  triadic heaven-earth-humankind  relationship, a
relationship  that focuses  on the holistic  unity  of things
rather  than  on  any  divisive  or dichotomous  particulars.
Nothing stands alone or independent  under this cosmology, so
that  everything  seeks  mutual  identity  in its  scheme  of
things. This totalistic nature is not only difficult to grasp
but also difficult to implement in everyday living, yet it is
always  the basis  of all actions  and activities, large  and
small, significant or insignificant, good or evil.
    What makes it difficult  to grasp? The answer  lodges  in
the most auspicious  but demanding concept of change (yi(b)).
In retrospect, it was the Chinese  genius to perceive  change
as the most  important  and basic  element  of nature  in the
understanding  of the phenomenal  world.  The average person,
however, would not see its importance in phenomenal movements
and  would  instead  simply  ignore  it  as  not  having  any
appreciable consequence. But therein lies the rub. That is to
say,have we really  taken  a good look at the happenings, the
momentary nature of things? Have we wondered about the events
of the day as they  arise  and subside, or how they influence
and mold the very character of succeeding  events? Or, in the
personal  biological  realm, have  we really  gotten  to  the
bottom of changes  in the ageing process? The chances  are we
have  not seriously  examined  ourselves  and that the ageing
process or events attendant to it are mere slurs, if anything
at all, in our dim memories. These memories are awakened only
by reference to anniversaries or celebrations of certain


P.8


dates. But we cannot escape the fact that we are creatures in
momentary existence in tandem with the cosmological process.
     The  Chinese  saw  change or  transformation as the very
expression  of the Tao.(C) How the Tao expresses  itself  and
how humans  are able to follow  its movements  have  been the
eternal quest from time immemorial.  On this point, the whole
genre of Taoist literature is nothing but a revelation of the
Tao and its movements, a revelation  that remains  a constant
challenge  to  humans  to assimilate  its  process.  A simple
message,  to  be  sure,  but  one  fraught  with  implemental
difficulties.
    The  Yi-ching(d)  (Book  of  Changes)  crystallizes   the
movement  of the  Tao  in  terms  of so-called  positive  and
negative forces, the straight and broken lines. The elaborate
configurations  in the  hexagrams  have  constantly  been  an
allurement  to many  a thinker  who seeks  to decipher  their
meaning and significance, even in contemporary times all this
has trickled  down to the rhythmic  representations  of daily
phenomena  as  recorded,  for  example, in  popular  Oriental
calendars.   Moreover,  the   movements   are   nothing   but
interpretive   derivations  of  the  well  known  yin-yang(e)
phenomenon.  This  phenomenon,  more  accurately,  should  be
referred  to as correlative  or mutual  dynamics  because  it
points to an inner process which defies dichotomization  into
independent  elements  or forces.  It exhibits  the fact that
mere cosmological  description  is inadequate, and calls  for
the  need  to  grasp  or  intimate  what  is  an  ever  vital
ontological  dynamics.  It also  affirms  the leading  Taoist
notion  that the Tao that  can be expressed/described  is not
the eternal  Tao.  Such  a notion  is frustrating, to say the
least, but it also challenges and entices us to further probe
the nature and function  of the Tao.  Indeed, in a sense, the
whole Taoist literature  is nothing but hints and suggestions
on how to become intimate  with the Tao.  We shall now try to
discuss a few of these basic but subtle ideas
    The Tao Te  Ching(f) has  several references to the great
doctrine of non-action (wu-wei(g)). It exhibits the fact that
rather than positively  identifiable  action in and of itself
that  really  underlies  change, it  is  the  exact  opposite
notion, the nature of non-action, that does so. For


P.9

example, it is said  "By  acting  without  action, all things
will  be  in  order"  (verse  3) .(1) Or,  similarly,  "  Tao
invariably  takes  no action, and yet there  is nothing  left
undone." (verse  37).(2) And  finally, verse  43  illuminates
it.(3)


  The softest  things in the world overcome
   the hardest things in the world.
  Non-being penetrates that in which there is no space.
  Through this I know the advantage of taking no action.
  Few in the world can understand  teaching  without  words
  and the advantage of taking no action.

    The  above  verse  contains  the  important   concept  of
non-being, a cognate  for the way of non-action.  Since deeds
of non-action  are quite  subtle  and paradoxical, we turn to
Chuang Tzu(h) to enlighten us, especially by his great acumen
for the use  of metaphorical  language.  In the  Chuang  Tzu,
Chapter  27, on "Imputed  Words,"(4) he  discusses  the  very
important  nature and function  of goblet words (chih-yen(i))
Goblet words transport ideas but are not carriers of ideas in
and of themselves.  They are "words  that  are no-words," and
"you may speak  all your life  long and you will  never  have
said anything."(5) So like the utensil  named a goblet  which
fills up with water only to empty its contents  when full and
immediately  return to its upright  position, the process  of
filling-and-emptying  never  ends,  which  is  precisely  the
manner in which goblet words function.  These words, in brief
flow with  the process  of speaking  and do not ever have any
objectively residual nature or any retaining characteristics.
Such then  is also the flow  of the Tao and the basis  of all
changes wherein non-action is more basic than visible action.

               III.  Being-nonbeing Dynamics

    The tension between being and nonbeing  is merely alleged
since it exists only because of the inadequate  understanding
of human perception. That is to say, in the normal perception
of things, one's perceptual appara-


P.10


tus  is always  skewed  in  the  direction  of the  tangible,
visible or manipulable elements.  However, perception is much
more than what the apparatus  reveals, since  those  elements
are always  more open, wider  and deeper.  In other words, we
have been conditioned  in such a way that we always associate
perception  with those  specific  elements, and so in time an
odd habit of perception  develops  which not only blunts  the
perceptual edges, but continues to keep us tied up with those
elements.
    Just as we saw with the nondichotomous  yin-yang process,
the  being-nonbeing  process  is also  dynamic  at all times.
Moreover, as soon as the dual  components  are split  up, the
process is no longer balanced and dynamic.  It will result in
a truncated  view, a half-view, if you  will, of the  process
itself. Where Lao Tzu(j) and Chuang Tzu wrote in metaphysical
terms  concerning  the movements  of the Tao,we find that the
Neo-Taoists,  Wang  Pi(k) (226-249) in  particular,  came  to
grips  with  the dynamic  nature  of things  in more explicit
ways.  He introduced  two features  in the  dynamics, namely,
substance  (t'i(1)) and  function(yung(m) ), to  exhibit  its
holistic and fluid nature.  His singular contribution here is
to  speak  of  an  original  substance  (pen-t'i(n)  )whereby
function   (yung)   becomes   a   way   of   exhibiting   its
manifestation. In this respect, his commentary on the Book of
Changes  brings  out the cardinal  doctrine  of an underlying
principle   in  each  of  the  changes  as  depicted  by  the
respective  hexagrams  (i.e.,  symbolic  representations   of
nature's  occurrencies).(6) As a further  extension  of  this
doctrine, his  commentary  on the  Tao  Te Ching, Chapter  1,
offers  a  bold  and  direct  affirmation  that  "all  beings
originated  from nonbeing" and that "the time before physical
forms  and names  appeared  was  the beginning  of the myriad
things" and thus the "Tao produces and completes  things with
the  formless  and  nameless."(7) Although  these  statements
appear  to replicate  the  Tao  Te Ching, we must  take  into
consideration  the  times, (the  3rd  Century  A.D.) and  the
circumstances (the age of disunity) in which these assertions
were made, a time when Buddhism  was already  making  inroads
into Chinese  culture.  At this  juncture, I am compelled  to
assert that Wang Pi, in his relatively  short life (dying  at
24) filled  with  rnetaphysical  acumen, set  the  stage  for
subsequent Chinese


P.11


thought  to  be conducive  to the  accommodation  of Buddhist
doctrines and principles.  From this period on, there will be
greater  and more serious contacts  with Buddhism  in various
aspects.  Indeed,  the  most  notable  scholars  during  this
crucial period of contacts came from the Taoist persuasion.
    The  most  prominent   Taoist  turned  Buddhist  here  is
Seng-Chao(o)   (384-414)   who   worked   with   the   famous
Kumarajiva(P) (344-413) on  translating  Buddhist  texts.  He
also  on his own commented  and wrote  treatises  on Buddhist
doctrines, albeit with Taoist leanings.  These treatises were
later  compiled  by his disciples  into  a work  called  Chao
Lun(q) (Treatises of Seng Chao).  With remarkable insight and
understanding  of Buddhist  principles, especially  those  of
Nagarjuna's(r)  (15-250) Verses  on  Ihe  Fundamental  Middle
Doctrine(S)   (Mulamadhyamakakarika)   he    gave    a   fine
philosophical  treatment  of  Buddho-Taoist  vocabulary.   He
recognized  the  superior  Buddhist  perception  of  ordinary
experience, a dyanmic  form  of metaphysics, and set the tone
for Chinese Buddhist development.(8) Perhaps he more than any
other  Chinese  thinker  was  able  to  perceive  the  subtle
connection  or  association   between  Wu(t)  and  k'ung(u) ,
"nonbeing'' and "emptiness" respectively.  In a sense, he set
the stage  for the eventual  identical  treatment  of the two
concepts  in Chinese thought and culture, especially  as seen
in various  art  forms.  By the  time  of the  T'ang  Dynasty
(618-907)  the  Chinese   had  become  attuned   to  Buddhist
principles  and went ahead to establish  their  own brand  of
Chinese  Buddhism, notably  Ch'an(V) (Zen) and  Ch'ing-t'u(W)
(Pure Land).

               IV. Analogical Comparisons

    We are at a point to begin general analogical comparisons
between  Chinese  pilosophy  and Buddhism.  The first general
category in which both seem to converge  is the quest for the
truth of existence.  That is to say, both systems  of thought
focus on the total nature of perception  to realize  the true
nature of existence.  Where the Chinese perception  is always
oriented  in the triadic heaven-earth-humankind  relationship
to


P.12


exhibit the Tao and its manifestation, the Buddhists took the
lead from the historical  Buddha's  insight (prajna) that led
to nirvana  and came up with the novel  nature  of the Dharma
and its manifestation  in experiential  reality.  Thus on the
whole, the methodological quest for the Tao is similar to the
quest for the Dharma.
    Both systems acknowledged the subtleties of the quest and
resorted to the two-fold nature of epistemic functions, i.e.,
the ordinary  or conventional  perception  of things  and the
inordinate  or supreme perceptual  insight into the nature of
things.  The Taoist, for example, referred  to imputed  words
for the  former  perception  and to goblet  words  to aid  in
realizing the latter. The former is related to the senses and
the  latter  to  the  mind's   unique  way  of  sensing   and
transporting   (indeed  in  a  way  transmuting)  ideas  into
experiential  realities.  The former  lies  in the domain  of
being (yu(X)), and the latter  in the domain of nonbeing(wu).
So that, ultimately, enlightenment (ming(y)) in Chinese meant
the perception of nonbeing over being.
    The Buddhists  likewise made the distinction  between the
veiled  or  covered  nature  of truth  (samvrti-sat) and  the
supremely open and pure nature of truth (paramartha-sat  )The
former, again, is related  to the senses  and their functions
as in Chinese  thought  and the latter to the mind's strength
to discipline  itself  (i.e., yoga) to control  the epistemic
rise of forms or entities  derived from the senses, but which
unsuspectingly  and incessantly  occlude  the very nature  of
perception. As a consequence, in Mahayana Buddhism we witness
the interplay  between  the senses and the mind.  Because the
senses are limited  they deal only with forms or experiential
dharmas,(9) and mind  initially  functions  by being  fed the
dharmas from the senses by virtue of yogic discipline it will
realize  the purity  or emptiness  (sunyata  )of experiential
reality. All of this is oriented within the nature of dynamic
experience,  known  technically   as  relational  origination
(pratitya-samutpada). Furthermore, it was the great Nagarjuna
(c.150-250) who demonstrated the pitfalls of dharmic analysis
that  veers  off  from  relational  origination   to  end  in
objective  realism or substantialism, thus retarding the very
function of experience by attach-


P.13


ment to projected inherent natures (svabhava). He saw reality
or the truth of existence  within the dynamic  flow of things
and  did  not  deviate   from   this   context.   His  famous
equation(10) of (a) relational origination, (b) emptiness (c)
provisionality  of things, and (d) the middle way exhibits in
no  uncertain   terms   that  the  truth   of  existence   is
multifaceted, indeed  multicontextual, and that  in the final
analysis   it  is  non-dharmic   and  totally  empty  of  any
designation.  This  equation  is  another  version, indeed  a
follow  up, of  the  famous  assertion  found  in  the  Heart
Sutra:(11) "Form is empty and the very emptiness is form." So
Buddhism  also  concluded  that  emptiness  or nonbeing  (wu)
undercuts any reference to elements of existence (dharmas) or
beings as such (yu).
    Although  Chinese  thought  is  not  as  thorough  as the
Buddhist metaphysical treatment of experience in terms of the
dharmas and non-dharmic  nature of things, it should be noted
that  Chinese   thinkers   also  acknowledged   an  analogous
connection  between  being  and nonbeing.  This fact is quite
obvious, especially in the philosophy  of Seng-chao, and thus
the Chinese pursued the enlightening process within a similar
framework  of dynamic  reality.  In consequence, both the Tao
and  the Dharma  are  at once  subject  to and the  basis  of
experiential  phenomena;  they  are  idealized  myths, if you
will,  of  existence.  Again,  although  Chinese  thought  is
divided  between  Confucianism  and Taoism  on the matter  of
humanity (jen(z)), both schools still function to incorporate
the highest  state  of personhood, the sage, within  the same
unadulterated  nature  of  existence.  For  Confucianism, the
attainment  of humanity is most basic to all of life;  indeed
it is the foundation of all other virtues and doctrines, such
as,    righteousness,    propriety,    trustworthiness    and
intelligence.  For  Taoism, on the  other  hand, there  is no
attainment  of humanity  as such because it is not an item to
be  captured  nor  is it  something  to  be  objectified  and
manipulated. In this respect, the Tao Te Ching and Chuang Tzu
have   taken   issue   with  the  above-mentioned   Confucian
doctrines.  This  does not mean, however, that the Taoist  is
not interested in the good life or the good person. Quite the
contrary, the Taoist is deeply  concerned  for the well-being
of individuals and he or she goes about promoting it in a


P.14


thoroughgoing  naturalistic  way rather  than in any twisted,
strained, forced, formal or conventionally attached ways. The
doctrine  of  supreme  naturalness  (tzu-jan  (aa)) is highly
prized,  and  is  a  cognate  term  for  nonaction   (wu-wei)
discussed earlier.  In turn, it is an extension of the nature
of nonbeing. All this points to the supreme realization or
intuition of the Tao (wu-tao(ab)).
    The closest concept to humanity  (jen) in Buddhism is the
great doctrine  of compassion  (karuna).  It is actually  the
flip  side  of penetrating  insight  (prajna).  For when  the
historical  Buddha realized  deep insight  into the nature of
things, how experiences  continually  arise  and subside, the
realization  at once manifested both the nature of compassion
to understand  and save all beings regardless  of class, rank
or stature, and that all being belong  to the selfsame  realm
of  existence.  So in Buddhism  insight  and  compassion  are
regarded  as the 'twin  peaks'  of existence  and the highest
forms  of livelihood.  As a consequence, from the very outset
Buddhist thought had collapsed the realms of epistemology and
ethics  No one could speak  of one realm without  introducing
the  other.   This  is  the  foundation  of  the  concept  of
Bodhisattva, literally the "enlighted  being", because such a
one  realizes  the  equality  of  beings  and  practices  the
Bodhisattva  way  of  life  (Bodhisattvacarya).  In sum, this
ideal  way  of  life  poses  the  ultimate  challenge  to all
adherents of the Buddhist faith as well as to interpreters of
Buddhism.
    In truth Chinese thought was capable of incorporating the
insightcompassion  scheme of things because of its Taoist and
Confucian  lineage  which stressed  the sagelike  penetration
into reality  (Tao) and the unstrained  humaneness  abounding
everywhere.  Its continental  spirit  was always  magnanimous
enough  to allow  the Chinese  to nourish  all elements, both
domestic and foreign, into a comprehensive harmony.
    Moreover, from the methodological standpoint, the merging
or fusing of Buddhist  and Chinese thought displays  a deeper
nature  of  the  systems, issuing  forth  a  unique  kind  of
Oriental  way  of life.  More  specifically, it reveals  that
Asiatic  philosophic  systems, by and  large, do  not  adhere
strictly   to  Western   fields   of  metaphysics(ontology) ,
epistemology


P.15


and  ethics, and  to their  attendant  elements  that  foster
objectivism.  If indeed a central  field is to be designated,
then  it would  have  to be ethics, the search/quest  for the
ideal personhood-buddhahood  and sagehood  in our discussion.
All metaphysical and epistemological  devices are used merely
as aids to understanding  the human  situation.  In the final
analysis, the nature and function  of ethical principles  and
values  can  only  be  captured  and  appreciated  by serious
individual  effort  and dedication.  To this end Asians  have
striven for and demonstrated  the feasibility  of a supremely
noble way of life.
   A  final  afterthought: The  Chinese  were  successful  in
finally  incorporating  Buddhist  thought  into their culture
about 1500 years ago, though it took them through  a long and
tortuous  route.  Is it not then possible  that we here today
stand a good chance of succeeding  through  various  forms of
East-West  dialogues  in eventually  attaining  a dialectical
transformation  of  our  lives? Since  the  mechanics  of the
contacts  and many  actual  human  benefits  in dialogue  are
already  in place, we may  be in a fortunate  situation.  But
only time will reveal the final outcome.

THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO

                     NOTES

1.     Wing-tsit  Chan, A Source  Book in Chinese  Philosophy
       (NY: Columbia University  Press, 1963).  Tao Te Ching.
       Verse 3, p.  141.
2.     Ibid., Verse37,p.158.
3.     Ibid.; Verse43,p.161.
4.     Burton  Watson, tr., The Complete  Works of Chuang Tzu
       (NY.  Columbia University Press, 1968). Chapter 27,pp.
       301-308
5.     Ibid., p.304.
6      Wing-tsit Chan, op.cit.pp 320-321.
7.     Ibid., p.321.
8.     Seng-chao's  treatises discuss highly abstract subject
       matters, such  as, on "The  Immutability  of  Things,"
       "The Emptiness of the Unreal," 'The Uncogniz-


P.16


       able  Nature  of   Prajna (insight), "    and    "The
       Undesignatable  Nature  of  Nirvana."  These  are  all
       essential   doctrines   of  Mahayana  Buddhism   which
       Seng-chao  focused on and understood  them quite well,
       aided   no  doubt  by  being  close  to  his  teacher,
       Kumarajiva.   It   is  no  accident.   moreover,  that
       Kumarajiva  chose to translate  texts relative  to the
       Madhyamaka  philosophy  (Middle  Way School) Afterall,
       they were the leading texts in India.


9.     These dharma (lower case "d") are factors  or elements
       of experience and should not be confused or identified
       with the Dharma (in caps), the truth of existence.  In
       order  to  avoid  confusion, the  latter  is  commonly
       referred  to as Buddha  Dharma.  That the same term is
       used  for ordinary  experience  as well as enlightened
       experience exhibits clearly the infrastructural nature
       of  things.  In  other  words, true  to  the  Buddha's
       original   insight,  there  is  universal   nature  of
       suffering  but at the same time there  is a way out of
       suffering  within the selfsame nature of things.  This
       is indeed the saving truth for all Buddhist adherents.
10.    Nagarjuna,   Mulamadhyamakakarika    Verses   on   the
       Fundamental  Middle  Doctrine) XXIV, 18.  See  various
       translations of this mononumental work, eg.,by Kenneth
       K. Inada, Nagarjuna  (Tokyo:  Hokuseido  Press, 1970)
       P. 148.
11.    See the excellent translations and explanations of the
       Diamond  Sutra  and the Heart Sutra  by Edward  Conze,
       Buddhist  Wisdom  Books (London: George  Allen & Unwin
       Ltd., 1958).

         CHINESE GLOSSARY
         a. 馮友蘭
         b. 易
         c. 道
         d. <<易經>>
         e. 陰陽
         f. <<道德經>>
         g. 無為
         h. 莊子
         i.   言
         j. 老子
         k. 王弼
         l. 體
         m. 用
         n. 本體
         o. 僧肇
         p. 鳩摩羅什
         q. <<肇論>>
         r. 龍樹
         s. <<根本中觀論頌>>
         t. 無
         u. 空
         v. 禪
         w. 凈土
         x. 有
         y. 明
         z. 仁
         aa.自然
         ab.悟道