p. 31
In discussing the Japanese reception of the philosophy and culture based on the Lotus Sutra, one must note that in the development of the Lotus Suutra, one of the most influential events in the history of Japanese Buddhism was the emergence of Saichoo (767-822), the founder of the Japanese Tiantai sect, and Nichiren (1222-1282), the founder of the Nichiren Hokke (Lotus) sect. In addition, with regard to the influence of the Lotus Suutra on literature, art and the performing arts, the Tiantai sect played an overwhelming role, and from the Muromachi period (1336-1573) onwards one can note the influence of the Nichiren Hokke sect. [1]
This paper introduces the Japanese reception of the philosophy and culture based on the Lotus Suutra within the span from the official introduction of Buddhism up to Nichiren. Owing to the limitations of my research and to the length of this paper, I wish to summarize my observations along the following points: the Hokke-gisho (a four-fascicle annotation on the Lotus Suutra) of Prince Shootoku; the copying of and lecturing on the Lotus Suutra; the founding of the Japanese Tiantai sect by Saichoo; the Lotus Suutra and its literature; and Nichiren and the Lotus Suutra.
According to the Nihon-shoki (Chronicles of Japan), the officially recorded transmission of Buddhism to Japan is said to be 552. However according to the History of the Construction and the Development of Gangyoo-ji Temple and the Catalogue of the Existing Treasures of the Temple, it is 538. At present, though, 538 is regarded as the year Buddhism was most likely transmitted to Japan. According to the Fusooryakki (Concise History of Japan), a copy of the Lotus Suutra was first introduced into Japan in 577, approximately 40 years following the introduction of Buddhism. The Jooguu-Shootoku-hoo-oo-teisetsu (Traditions Concerning His Holiness
p. 32
Prince Shootoku) states that Prince Shootoku (574-622) delivered a course of lectures on the Shooman-gyoo (`Sriimaalaa Suutra). According to the Nihon-shoki, the article of July of the 14th year of Emperor Suiko (606), he delivered a course of lectures on the Lotus Suutra and the Shooman-gyoo, respectively. According to the History of the Construction and the Development of Hooryuu-ji Temple and the Catalogue of the Existing Treasures of the Temple, dated February 11 in the 19th year of the Tempyoo era (747), three copies of the Hokke-gisho (a four-fascicle annotation on the Lotus Suutra), one copy of the Yuima-gyoo-gisho (a three-fascicle annotation on the Vimalakiirti Suutra) and one copy of the Shooman-gyoo-gisho (a one or three-fascicle annotation on the `Sriimaalaa Suutra) are recorded as having been made at the order of His Holiness Prince Shootoku. Although this record does not mention the course of lectures he delivered on the Vimalakiirti Suutra, the existence of the Yuima-gyoo-gisho enables us to presume that Prince Shootoku delivered a course of lectures on the Vimalakiirti Suutra. It has been believed for many years that he delivered a course of lectures on the three sutras, Lotus, `Sriimaalaa and Vimalakiirti, respectively, and the three annotations were made in natural course.
Despite heated discussions on the issue of his delivering lectures on the three sutras and the three annotations, a final conclusion has still not been reached. [2] Nonetheless, it is a historical fact that throughout the middle ages quotes and commentaries were made from the Hokke-gisho, which is undeniably Prince Shootoku's writing. Thus, I shall briefly discuss the Hokke-gisho.
The fourth volume of the Hokke-gisho is an annotation on the Lotus Suutra (27 chapters excluding the "Devadatta" chapter) and is principally based on the doctrine of the Hokke-giki [3] (an eight-fascicle annotation entitled "Fahua-yiji," which was lectured by Fayun [467-529] of Guang-zhai-si in China, and written by his disciple), frequently quoting many passages from it under the titles "the original's meaning," "the original's annotation" and "the original's explanation." The original is presently in the custody of the Imperial Household. It was first published in the first year of Hooji (1247). One will note that quotations are used from the Hokke-gisho in the Joomyoo-genron-ryakujutsu by Chikoo (708-776?) of Gangyoo-ji temple and the Kegon-gokyooshoo-shijiki by Juryoo (late eighth century) of Toodai-ji temple. Annotations on the Hokke-gisho are the Hokekyoo-jooguu-oo-gisho, the Hokke-sho-ekooki by Gyoonen (1240-1321), the Hokke-kirin-yuufuudan by Ryoojo (1268-1318), and others. In Japan, however, as the three major writings of Tiantai (Fahua-xuanyi, Fahua-wenju and Mohe-zhiguan) were overwhelmingly
p. 33
popular as annotations on the Lotus Suutra and as the Hokke-giki is criticized in those writings, it is only natural to say that the influence of the Hokke-gisho, which is based on the Hokke-giki, was limited to a small scale.
As the Hokke-gisho completely follows the Chinese style of annotation in its format and description and because it is principally dependent on the doctrine of the Hokke-giki by Fayun, it criticizes the Hokke-giki at times while establishing its own doctrines.
Generally speaking, annotations on a sutra clearly present its entire structure by separating its contents into paragraphs along numerous levels. Each paragraph sets its own respective theme and the relation between the large and small paragraphs is also established. Explanations of difficult terminology and interpretations of the metaphors are also included. However, they often bore readers and, due to its nature, the annotator's personal views are often not easily reflected. The same could be said of the Hokke-gisho.
In spite of this, I would like to point out two points in the Hokke-gisho that deserve attention. First is the unique interpretation of the description of a person "who constantly takes pleasure in sitting in meditation" which appears in the 14th chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "Peaceful Practices." In this chapter, it is taught that an ascetic should only approach and associate with people who constantly take pleasure in sitting in meditation. In contrast to the original interpretation of the Lotus Suutra, the Hokke-gisho states that an ascetic should not approach a monk of Hiinayaana Buddhism who "constantly takes pleasure in sitting in meditation." The reason for this is explained as follows: "He, with the mind of delusion, lives here and constantly takes pleasure in sitting in meditation around mountains. Therefore, how can he find time to propagate this sutra in the world?" [4] This interpretation takes into account that the Lotus Suutra emphasizes the propagation of the sutra after the passing away of `Saakyamuni. Secondly, the term "one great vehicle" does not appear in other annotations. [5] Since the Lotus Suutra expounds the theory of the one vehicle of the Buddha (i.e., the teaching that all persons can equally attain Buddhahood, irrespective of any distinctions made by voice-hearers, cause-awakened ones or bodhisattvas), the word "one" was placed before the "great vehicle" to separate it from the idea of a differentiation into a great and a lesser vehicle as done in previous Mahaayaana Buddhism. [6]
p. 34
The earliest mention of this practice in Japan is in 673 in Kawara-dera temple when the copying of all the sutras began. The Lotus Suutra was first copied in the third year of Jinki (726) [7] when Emperor Shoomu ordered a copy to be dedicated to the retired Emperor Genshoo. The fact that the Emperor Shoomu ordered 1,000 copies of the Lotus Suutra to be made in the 20th year of Tempyoo (748) in memory of the late retired Emperor Genshoo is worth a special mention. Since the Lotus Suutra teaches the virtue of the five kinds of teachers who embrace, read, recite, expound and copy, the copying of the Lotus Suutra became very popular practice in India and China. It also became popular in Japan to the extent that obscure priests, laymen and even emperors became engaged in it, resulting in numerous copies of the Lotus Suutra.
During the Heian period (794-1185), in particular, it became a fashion among the nobility to make splendid decorated sutras. The Lotus Suutra was copied on deep blue colored paper with gold paint. It was also copied on paper which had pictures of grass, trees, birds and other designs, which are deemed as works of high level artistry. The Lotus Suutra was also copied with each character enthroned on a lotus pedestal or in a pagoda, or with each character copied alongside Buddhist statues. Such works of copying encouraged in the Lotus Suutra give us a glimpse of the believers' unparalleled pious devotion. In particular, fan-shaped booklets of the Lotus Suutra (a national treasure preserved in Shitennoo-ji temple) and a set of the Lotus Suutra dedicated by Taira no Kiyomori [8] (1118-1181) to Itsukushima Shrine (a national treasure) are considered to be among the most splendid works of Japanese art.
In the latter part of the Heian period, under the influence of eschatology, the custom of burying [9] sutras became a common practice. It was a tradition to copy the Lotus Suutra, put it into tubes and bury them under the ground to prepare for the advent of Bodhisattva Maitreya, who was believed to come down to this world 5,670 million years after the death of `Saakyamuni to preach the three assemblies of the dragon trees.
An overwhelming majority of the sutras that were buried were copies of the Lotus Suutra. It is well known, for example, that Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027) buried the Lotus Suutra, copied on deep blue colored paper with gold paint, in the Kinpusen Mountain in Yamato.
When the Grand Council of State issued a notice requesting priests to recite the Lotus Suutra or the Sovereign Kings Suutra of Golden Light (Konkoomyoo-saishoo-oo-kyoo), it was a requisite that priests acquire general knowledge of the Lotus Suutra. In the 13th year of Tempyoo (741),
p. 35
Emperor Shoomu ordered the building of Kokubun-ji temple and Kokubunni-ji temple for surmounting national crises such as the prevalence of plagues and the worsening of relations between Japan and Silla. The official name of Kokubun-ji temple was designated as Konkoomyoo Shitennoo Gokoku no Tera, and 20 priests were dispatched there and ordered to recite the Sovereign Kings Suutra of Golden Light to pray for the protection of the nation. The official name of Kokubunni-ji temple was Hokke Metsuzai no Tera. 10 nuns were dispatched there and ordered to recite the Lotus Suutra for the expiation of sins. Although there are no sections where the protection of the state is directly mentioned in the Lotus Suutra, it was regarded as an important sutra by Kokubunni-ji temple (a state religion), and was officially authorized by the state as one of the three sutras to be recited for the protection of the nation along with the Sovereign Kings Suutra of Golden Light and the Benevolent Kings Wisdom Suutra (Ninnoo-gokoku-hannya-haramitsu-kyoo).
Thus, copying and reciting of the Lotus Suutra prevailed during the Nara and Heian periods and, along with this phenomenon, assemblies for preaching the Lotus Suutra were held more frequently. It was at Kenjaku Monastery in the premises of Toodai-ji temple in the 18th year of Tempyoo (746) that Rooben (689-773), for the first time, preached the Lotus Suutra in an assembly. Assemblies on the Lotus Suutra thereafter were held very frequently for the repose of the souls of the dead. Gonsoo (754-827) first preached the eight volumes of the Lotus Suutra for eight days each for the repose of the soul of the mother of his friend, the priest Eikoo, at Iwabuchi-dera temple in Yamato in the 15th year of Enryaku (796). This is the beginning of Hokke-hakkoo (eight lectures on the Lotus Suutra). Hokke-hakkoo became the most popular assembly held at temples, private residences of the nobility and in shrines during the Heian period. Hokke-jukkoo (10 lectures on the Lotus Suutra) was first initiated by Saichoo, who explained and preached the 10 volumes of the Lotus Suutra including the Immeasurable Meanings Suutra (Muryoogi-kyoo), the prologue to the Lotus Suutra, and the Universal Worthy Suutra (i.e., the Suutra of Meditation on Bodhisattva Fugen), the epilogue of the Lotus Suutra, in the 17th year of Enryaku (798) at Ichijoo-shikan Monastery located on Mt. Hiei. Thereafter, Hokke-sanjukkoo (30 lectures on the Lotus Suutra) also started to be held, with the addition of the two sutras of the prologue and epilogue to the 28 chapters of the Lotus Suutra.
This concludes my discussion on the copying of and lecturing on the Lotus Suutra by emperors, the nobility and priests of high positions. I
p. 36
shall now discuss devotional copying and recitation of the Lotus Suutra by the common people, as mentioned in the Nihon-ryooiki (Nihonkoku-genpoo-zen'aku-ryooiki) compiled by Kyokai, a Buddhist priest of Yakushi-ji temple. This is the earliest Japanese collection of Buddhist moral tales, said to have been compiled during the Koonin period (810-824), which consists of three volumes (35 tales in the first volume, 42 in the second, and 39 in the third, respectively). Among them there are 12 tales [10] whose titles bear the name of the Lotus Suutra. They preach the virtue of faith in the Lotus Suutra as well as the punishment incurred for the slander of the sutra. Since Saichoo founded the Japanese Tiantai sect, the Lotus Suutra became all the more enthusiastically received by the common people, which led to the writing of Japanese collections of Buddhist moral tales. Among them are the Nihon-oojoo-gokuraku-ki (compiled by Yoshishige no Yasutane in approximately 986), the Dai-nihonkoku-hokekyoo-genki (compiled by Shuryoogon-in-shamon Chingen in approximately 1004) and the Konjaku-monogatari (the mid-12th century; compiler unknown). These works enable one to learn about the history of the majority of the common people's faith in the Lotus Suutra.
During the Nara period (710-794), not only was the Myoohoo-renge-kyoo (Miaofa lianhua jing), translated in 406 by Kumaarajiiva (344-413 or 350-409), introduced to Japan, but the Shoohoke-kyoo (Zhengfa hua jing), translated in 286 by Dharmarak.sa (c. 230s; died age 78), and the Tempon-myoohoo-renge-kyoo (Tianpin miaofa lianhua jing), translated in 601 by J~naanagupta (523-605) and Dharmagupta (d. 619), were also introduced into Japan. Moreover, numerous annotations were also introduced. [11] Ganjin (688-763), in particular, introduced the three major writings of Tiantai and many other documents of the Chinese Tiantai sect to Japan. [12]
Saichoo became interested in the teachings of the Chinese Tiantai sect through the Kegon-gokyoo-shoo (a five-fascicle of the five kinds of teaching classified by the Kegon sect) and the Daijoo-kishin-ron-giki (a three or five-fascicle annotation on the Daijoo-kishin-ron) by Fazang (637-714) of the Kegon (Huayan) sect in China. After completing his studies of the documents introduced by Ganjin, he went to China in 804. He returned to Japan after he had learned the teachings of Tiantai under the guidance of Daosui and Xingman. In 806, the court permitted Saichoo to take in two priests every year and authorized his school as an
p. 37
independent Tiantai sect along with six other sects of Nara. Particularly noteworthy among his achievements were the disputes against Tokuichi of the Hossoo sect on the doctrine of the three provisional teachings and the one true teaching, and against the six sects of Nara about the establishment of a Mahaayaana ordination center at Mt. Hiei. The dispute with Tokuichi concerned the theory of the "one Buddha vehicle" of the Lotus Suutra versus the respective doctrines of the five groups of the Hossoo sect. Saichoo claimed the superiority of the universal Buddha nature and the possibility of anyone attaining Buddhahood according to his perception of the doctrine of the "one Buddha vehicle" of the Lotus Suutra.
One of the major works on the Lotus Suutra by Saichoo is the Daitoo-shiragi-shoshuu-gisho-ehyoo-tendai-gishuu (Classification of the Schools Based on Tiantai's Doctrine in Great China and Silla), in which he indicates that numerous Buddhist masters in China and Silla founded their schools based on Tiantai's doctrines, thus claiming the superiority of the Tiantai sect.
In his writing, the Hokke-shuuku (The Outstanding Principles of the Lotus Suutra), Saichoo insists that the Lotus Suutra is the most superior among all sutras because it offers a direct means to enable one to attain Buddhahood in one's present form in contrast to other sutras which require lengthy ascetic practices over a span of many kalpas. His other writings include an annotation on the Immeasurable Meanings Suutra (the prologue to the Lotus Suutra). Although it is said that he wrote an annotation on the Lotus Suutra, it is no longer in existence.
One can see traces of widespread faith in the Lotus Suutra as recorded in the aforementioned Nihon-oojoo-gokuraku-ki, Dai-nihonkoku-hokekyoo-genki and Konjyaku-monogatari. These writings clearly indicate the tremendous influence of the Lotus Suutra on literature. Moreover, one will note the emergence of literature by woman authors such as the Makura-no-sooshi (The Pillow Book in approximately 1000) by Seishoo Nagon, the Genji-monogatari (The Tale of Genji in approximately 1005) by Murasaki Shikibu, and others. These are evidence of the Lotus Suutra's tremendous influence on the religious life of the people.
One must mention the Shakkyoo-ka (a 31-syllable Japanese poem on the theme of Buddhism) as one example of Japanese literature directly based on materials taken from the Lotus Suutra. [13] We can find some Shakkyoo-ka in the Shuui-waka-shuu (a collection entitled Shuui consisting of a 31-syllable Japanese poem compiled in approximately 1001-1005),
p. 38
which are based on materials taken from the Lotus Suutra. In 1002, around the time when the Shuui-waka-shuu was compiled, Fujiwara no Michinaga composed some waka poems with his colleagues for the repose of the soul of his sister, Higashi-sanjoo-in Senshi. Since then, it became fashionable to compose waka poems on the themes of the 28 chapters of the Lotus Suutra. The Hosshin-waka-shuu, compiled by Senshi-nai-shinnoo (964-1035), is a collection of only Shakkyoo-ka, and more than half of them are based on themes of the Lotus Suutra.
In the Go-shuui-waka-shuu (compiled in 1086), classification into two items, the Shakkyoo and the Jingi (God of Heaven and God of the Earth) were initiated. In the Senzai-waka-shuu (compiled in 1187), we can see an independent part of Shakkyoo being established for the first time. It is said that about one third of Shakkyoo-ka are related to the Lotus Suutra. [14]
The retired Emperor Goshirakawa (1127-1192) ordered the compilation of the Ryoojin-hishoo (a collection of Ima-yoo, a Japanese poem with a basic form of four lines with seven-five syllables or eight-five syllables each) in which are found 135 waka poems based on materials from the Lotus Suutra.
Nichiren, while accepting the trend of the holders of the Lotus Suutra during the Heian period, [15] established his own concept of chanting daimoku (the Japanese title of the Lotus Suutra with the word "namu" in the beginning). In contrast to the widespread faith in the Nembutsu sect (the invocation of the name of Amitaabha Buddha) by the common people of China, the practice of the chanting of daimoku flourished to match the faith in Nembutsu by the Japanese common people. Also, the new sects that appeared in Japan were mostly based on the concepts of the Lotus Suutra. These facts indicate that this trend was based on Nichiren's origination of the invocation of the daimoku.
While daimoku and honzon (the object of worship) are the most essential aspects of Nichiren's thought, he directed his attention to the theory of ichinen-sanzen (three thousand realms in a single moment of mind) as the theoretical basis of his doctrine. To Nichiren, it was the vitally important theory of ichinen-sanzen that linked himself with Zhiyi (another name for Tiantai, 538-598) and `Saakyamuni of the Lotus Suutra, manifesting that the three were in line with the orthodox history of Buddhism.
Nichiren's interpretation of ichinen-sanzen can be summarized as fol-
p. 39
lows. Historically speaking, although it was Zhiyi who first expounded the theory of ichinen-sanzen in his Great Concentration and Insight (Mohe zhiguan), Nichiren states that ichinen-sanzen was originally expounded in the Lotus Suutra, and that Zhiyi merely drew it out from the Lotus Suutra. Since ichinen-sanzen is the principle by which anyone can attain Buddhahood, it was expressed as the "seed of Buddhahood." Nichiren established Nam-myoohoo-renge-kyoo in the Latter Day of the Law as the medium to interpret the principle of ichinen-sanzen. Furthermore, as ichinen-sanzen also enables non-sentient beings to attain Buddhahood, it was established as the object of worship or mandala. Thus, we can understand that ichinen-sanzen was explained and taught through the means of the object of worship and daimoku of Nam-myoohoo-renge-kyoo, the original interpretation of Nichiren.
Needless to say, Nichiren's interpretation of ichinen-sanzen is not that of Zhiyi, but his own original concept called ji-no-ichinen-sanzen (actual ichinen-sanzen). [16] In studying the characteristics of Nichiren's reception of the Lotus Suutra, it is requisite that one studies how Nichiren interpreted the mainstream concept of the Lotus Suutra of India. I would like to comprehend the mainstream concept of the Lotus Suutra from three angles. [17] The first is the concept of the "one Buddha vehicle" that teaches that all sentient beings can equally attain Buddhahood. The second is the theory of the eternal existence of `Saakyamuni and that he is the Eternal Buddha who attained Buddhahood in the remote past and is the only and absolute savior of all sentient beings in the sahaa world. The third is the concept that the Bodhisattvas of the Earth are the successors of Lotus Suutra after the passing away of `Saakyamuni. In conclusion, it can be said that the theories of Nichiren, which are beyond time and space, are in closest connection to the three main thoughts of the Lotus Suutra.
Nichiren and the Concept of the "One Buddha Vehicle"
The concept of the "one Buddha vehicle" means that `Saakyamuni appeared in this sahaa world for the sole and lofty purpose of enabling all sentient beings to equally attain Buddhahood. There are two important aspects in this concepts. One is the teaching that all sentient beings can equally attain Buddhahood. The second is the teaching that stresses the importance of the advent of `Saakyamuni as the savior.
The former point, which is to enable all beings to attain Buddhahood, does not need any further explanation as it was easily understand by those who recited the Lotus Suutra in China and Japan. Nichiren's recep-
p. 40
tion and development of the teaching that all people can attain Buddhahood was inherited from Zhiyi's theory of ichinen-sanzen. As for the latter teaching, the significance of `Saakyamuni's advent for the purpose of enabling all sentient beings to attain Buddhahood, it can be said that Nichiren's religious piety enabled him to accept this as it is. The importance of the close relationship between the Buddha and the common mortal as expressed in the principles of geshu-yaku (benefit received from sowing the seed of Buddhahood), the juku-yaku (the benefit received from the seed maturing) and the datchaku (the benefit received from the seed being harvested) revealed by Tiantai, was strongly stressed by Nichiren far beyond comparison to Tiantai.
There is a concept derived from the aforementioned theory, which is called Nichiren no Shakuson-goryoo-kan which means Nichiren's view that `Saakyamuni dominates the world. This view is based on the third chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "Simile and Parable," which states: "But now this threefold world is all my domain, and the living beings in it are all my children. Now this place is beset by many pains and trials. I am the only person who can rescue and protect others." [18] In other words, it teaches that this sahaa world is `Saakyamuni's domain and, therefore, there is a deep religious connection between `Saakyamuni and all sentient beings. Based on this theory, Nichiren criticizes the Pure Land sect, saying that because Amitaabha Buddha (the Buddha of Infinite Light) of the pure land of the highest joy in the west has no connection with human beings living in the sahaa world, faith in Amitaabha Buddha is off the point, and further criticizes it, saying that faith in Amitaabha Buddha only makes light of the true master `Saakyamuni. In addition, Nichiren's criticism of the Tathaagata Mahaavairocana as the Buddha of the dharma body of the Shingon sect is also based on the same view.
Nichiren and the Concept of the Eternal Buddha from the Remotest Past
As for the concept of the eternal Buddha from the remotest past, one must mention that Nichiren made a clear distinction between the theoretical teaching (shakumon) and the essential teaching (honmon) of the Lotus Suutra and that he particularly emphasized the importance of the latter. He pointed out, for example, that the theory of ichinen-sanzen, which is a systematic thought on the ten factors expounded in the second chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "Expedient Means," can never be ultimately complete until the meaning of the essential teaching is taught. Furthermore, in the "True Object of Worship," Nichiren explains Buddhahood as he refers to the name associated with `Saakyamuni in the remote past as mushi no kobutsu. He never uses such universal, abstract
p. 41
or immanent terms as "Buddha nature" mentioned in the Nirva.na Suutra of the great vehicle. In his writings, we can easily comprehend Nichiren's fervent faith in `Saakyamuni of the remotest past.
Nichiren and the Concept of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth
With regard to Nichiren and the concept of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, it is a well-known fact that, from the standpoint of the realization that he was a Bodhisattva of the Earth, Nichiren lived his life as the "votary of the Lotus Suutra." The Bodhisattvas of the Earth are expounded in the 14th chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "Emerging from the Earth." They emerged from the earth as the successors of the Lotus Suutra after the passing away of `Saakyamuni.
At the beginning of this chapter, innumerable bodhisattvas far outnumbering the sands of eight Ganges, who came from other lands, vow to propagate the Lotus Suutra after the passing away of `Saakyamuni. However, `Saakyamuni refuses their vow for the reason that there existed in the sahaa world other bodhisattvas equal to the number of the sands of 60 thousand Ganges, and that they were the very ones who possessed the mission to propagate the Lotus Suutra. Just then, those bodhisattvas emerged from the earth through a cleft in the ground. When Bodhisattva Maitreya and the bodhisattvas as many as the number of the sands of eight thousand Ganges saw these bodhisattvas never seen or heard of before, they were in doubt and inquired who they were. `Saakyamuni replied that they were disciples whom he had taught since his attaining Buddhahood. Bodhisattva Maitreya, still not convinced how `Saakyamuni could have taught so many disciples in the short period (some 40 years) after attaining Buddhahood, continued to beg `Saakyamuni reveals the concept of the Buddha who attained Buddhahood in the remote past, as taught in the 16th chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "The Life Span of the Thus Come One." The "Emerging from the Earth" chapter does not give sufficient explanation on the characteristics of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth. In fact, one should refer to the 10th chapter, "The Teacher of the Law," for explanation on who these successors of the Lotus Suutra were after the passing of the Buddha.
In conclusion, those who embrace faith in the Lotus Suutra are believed to have already attained true Enlightenment in their past life, and yet out of deep compassion they relinquished the fruit of their good karma and voluntarily chose to be born in this evil world to propagate the Lotus Suutra. They, therefore, do not seek to attain Enlightenment through their own efforts, nor do they seek to be saved by an absolute
p. 42
savior. [19] They strongly bear in mind their true identity that they have already attained Enlightenment in their past life and have been born into this evil world at their own will to propagate the Lotus Suutra for the sake of all sentient beings in the evil world, and thus feel satisfied by fulfilling their mission. Herein lies an extremely interesting religious theory. Therefore, with regard to their mission in this life, they declare that they are envoys of the Tathaagata, or Buddha, dispatched by the Tathaagata to undertake the task of the Tathaagata, which is to save all sentient beings by preaching the Lotus Suutra.
One can say that the key phrase that reveals Nichiren's view of the Lotus Suutra is "the envoy of the Tathaagata," which appears in "The Teacher of the Law" chapter of the Lotus Suutra. The reason for this is because it can be said that Nichiren used this term to express his awareness of being the Bodhisattva of the Earth. Nichiren interprets the time span after the passing away of `Saakyamuni as the Latter Day of the Law, during which he will live as the rebirth of Bodhisattva Superior Practices, the leader of bodhisattvas equal in number to the sands of 60 thousand Ganges. Namely, he recognizes himself as the savior of all sentient beings in the Latter Day of the Law.
Although most Buddhists in China and Japan seem to interpret the story of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth as a myth taught in the Lotus Suutra, Nichiren, as mentioned above, interpreted them as real happenings in history. [20] In this way, Nichiren can be said to be a pure-minded and unaffected practitioner of the Lotus Suutra. When viewed from a religious point, this aspect of him, in fact, shows us what a tremendously interesting character and philosophy he possessed. The same could be said of not only his interpretation of the Bodhisattvas of the Earth but also of shakuson-goryoo-kan, or of `Saakyamuni who attained Enlightenment in the remote past.
The Circumstances that Formed Nichiren's Interpretation of the Lotus Suutra
Nichiren placed great importance on the essential theory of the Eternal Buddha and the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, which are still often made light of. I would like to examine the reasons that made this possible for Nichiren. At the time the Lotus Suutra was compiled, it can be presumed that the followers of the Lotus Suutra were under strained relations with Nikaaya Buddhism. The same could be said of his isolation from the Buddhist society in those days due to his religious activities. Regardless of time and place, criticizing existing, preconceived ideas and calling for new ones is like throwing oneself into difficulty. This is a lesson his-
p. 43
tory repeatedly teaches. Even though the minor persecutions incurred by Hoonen (1133-1212), who was the target of Nichiren's severest criticism, are incomparable to those suffered by Nichiren, it is still a historical fact that Honen was persecuted by the authorities. It is presumed that Nichiren being isolated only triggered him to long for the advent of the absolute savior and to deepen his self-awareness as the Bodhisattva of the Earth.
Nichiren's claim that the Lotus Suutra was the highest teaching and his refusal to take into account other teachings put him in the same category as those followers who, when the Lotus Suutra was compiled, claimed that only the Lotus Suutra could save all sentient beings. Nichiren's interpretation differs much from those of the Chinese annotators who were obliged to annotate numerous sutras in the framework of an organic system.
It may be said that at the time of completion of the compilation of the Lotus Suutra, the faith of these numerous compilers and successors had been reduced to an empty shell in the process of its academic reception in China. In contrast to this, Nichiren's unique and personal view of the Lotus Suutra revived it.
With the confidence gained by not only studying the Lotus Suutra with his mind but by "living" the teachings of the Lotus Suutra and his confidence in declaring that he was the "votary of the Lotus Suutra," we can safely conclude that he was the sole person who accepted the essential theory of the Lotus Suutra in the true sense and developed it. One can reasonably say that the many contemporary religious activities based on the Lotus Suutra are all ultimately derived from Nichiren.
1. This paper does not include periods after the Muromachi. The following are believers of the Nichiren Hokke sect from later periods who were related to arts and the performing arts: Kanoo Motonobu (1476-1559), Hasegawa Toohaku (1539-1610), Hon'inboo Nichikai (1555-1618), Hon'ami Kooetsu (1558-1637), Kanoo Tan'yuu (1602-1674), Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), Hishikawa Moronobu (1618-1694), Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693), Ogata Koorin (1658-1716), Jippensha Ikku (1765-1831), Nakamura Utaemon III (1778-1838), Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) cf. Yojoo Nomura, Nichiren-kei-geijutsuka-ryakuden (Short Biography of the Artists Related to the Nichiren Sect), Nichiren and the Lotus Suutra, Lectures on Nichiren, vol. 1, Tokyo: Shunjuusha, 1972. However, it is not clear how strong their faith was.
2. On the genuineness of Hokke-gisho, cf. Hiroshi Kanno, "Sangyoo-gisho-no-shingi-mondai-ni-tsuite (On the Genuineness of the Three Commentaries)", compiled by the Okura Institute of Spiritual Culture, Comprehensive Study on Asuka Culture, Tokyo: Kokusho Kankookai, 1989. For the "Hokke-gisho," the following were used as reference: Gyobutsu-bon-Hokke-gisho-fukusei-bon (A Facsimile of the Hokke-Gisho, Imperi-
p. 44
al Household), Tokyo: Yoshikawa Koobunkan, 1971. Hokke-gisho in Taishoo-shinshuu-daizoo-kyo vol. 56, Tokyo: Society for the Publication of the Taisho Tripitaka, 1926. Translation; edited and translated by Shinshoo Hanayama, Hokke-gisho vol. 1-2, Tokyo: Iwanami Bunko, (old edition in 1931-1933, new edition 1975). Research works: Shinshoo Hanayama, A Study on Hokke-gisho of Prince Shootoku, Tokyo: Sankiboo Busshorin, 1933. Compiled by Hisatoyo Ishida, An Encyclopaedia on Prince Shootoku, Tokyo: Kashiwa Shoboo, 1997.
3. cf. Translated and noted by Hiroshi Kanno, Hokke-giki, Collections of Annotations of the Lotus Suutra vol. 2, Tokyo: Okura Publishing Co., 1996.
4. cf. Taishoo-shinshuu-daizoo-kyoo, vol. 56, p. 118 mid.
5. One must be careful to conclude that the term "one great vehicle" was originated by the author of Hokke-gisho and take into consideration that many annotations were lost in China.
6. Shinshoo Hanayama had already pointed out these two points in his Hokke-gisho vol. 2, 1975, pp. 407-8.
7. cf. Yutaka Takagi, A History of Hokke Buddhism in the Heian Period, Kyoto: Heirakuji Shoten, 1973, p. 193. Much reference is made to the fourth chapter of the book: "Origin and Development of Lecture Courses on the Lotus Suutra."
8. Each chapter of the Lotus Suutra can be regarded as one volume. Including one volume each of the Immeasurable Meanings Suutra, the Universal Worthy Suutra, the Amitaabha Suutra, the Heart Suutra and the Verse of Vows it reaches a total of 33 volumes.
9. In the Verse of Taking Vows of Nanyue Huisi (515-577) of China, it is recorded that he buried the Great Wisdom Suutra and the Lotus Suutra written in golden letters. It is said that En'nin (794-864) introduced this custom to Japan.
10. cf. Nihon-ryooiki, (Nihon-koten-bungaku-taikei 70), Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1967.
11. cf. Mosaku Ishida, Shakyoo-yori-mitaru-nara-choo-bukkyoo-noo-kenkyuu (A Study of Buddhism in Nara Period from the View of the Copying of Sutras), Tokyo: Tooyoo Bunko, 1930, pp. 136-146.
12. ibid. pp. 32-41.
13. Dai-soojoo (Archbishop) Gyooki composed a Shakkyoo-ka poem based on the contents of the "Devadatta" chapter, the 12th chapter of the Lotus Suutra as follows: "I received the Lotus Suutra because of my service to Devadatta in the past by gathering firewood, picking vegetables and drawing water." On waka poems of the Lotus Suutra, cf. Yutaka Takagi, the Hokekyoo-waka-to-hoomonka (Waka Poems and Hoomonka on the Lotus Suutra), the fifth chapter of A History of Hokke Buddhism in the Heian Period.
14. cf. Tadayuki Nishida, "Lotus Suutra and Japanese Literature," The Journal of Oriental Studies (a separate volume): A Collection of Lectures at Buddhist University vol. 8, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Philosophy, 1978, p. 64.
15. Concerning the holders of the Lotus Suutra, cf. "On Religious Activities of Holders of Sutras" in the seventh chapter of A History of Hokke Buddhism in the Heian Period.
16. cf. Hiroshi Kanno, "Nichiren's Reception and Development of Ichinen-sanzen," the third chapter of What is Ichinen-sanzen, Tokyo: the Daisan Bunmei Sha, 1992.
17. cf. Hiroshi Kanno, "The Essential Concept of the Lotus Suutra and its Development in China and Japan" in the second chapter of the Emergence of the Lotus Suutra, Tokyo: Daizoo Publishing Co., 1997. The writer states that the early Mahaayaana Buddhist sutras could be seen as a new interpretation of the Buddha's life and thought (ibid., p. 13). I think this description is especially appropriate for the Lotus Suutra. The most significant
p. 45
events in the Buddha's life are
his attainment of Buddhahood, the request of Brahmaa, his first preaching and
his nirvaa.na at the age of 80. In Buddhism, needless to say, everything begins
with his Enlightenment. Moreover Buddhism could not have been formed if the
Enlightenment of the Buddha was not been taught through speech. Therefore `Saakyamuni's
first preaching based on the request of Brahmaa is naturally very significant.
Since then he never ceased to preach for more than 40 years until he entered
nirvaa.na at the age of 80.
In the Lotus Suutra, `Saakyamuni either interprets or adds
explanations to the significant events in his life, that is, his attaining Enlightenment,
the request of Brahmaa, his first preaching and his nirvaa.na at the age of
80. At first his attaining of Enlightenment was regarded as the Enlightening
to the saddhamma (correct law). The Lotus Suutra adopted the event of the Enlightening
to the saddhamma (Paali for saddharma in Sanskrit) as the title of the Lotus
Suutra (Saddharmapu.n.dariikasuutra) and recognized itself as the supreme and
ultimate law preached by all Buddhas in common.
Next, the second chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "Expedient
Means," contains the request made by `Saariputra in accordance with the
request of Brahmaa. `Saakyamuni complies with this request by expounding the
"one Buddha vehicle." This is in perfect accordance with the first
preaching. The preaching is clearly defined as `Saakyamuni's second preaching
of the supreme law in the Lotus Suutra. The term "the second preaching"
is not only found in the Lotus Suutra but in other Mahaayaana sutras as well.
This fact is a clear evidence that the compilers of Mahaayaana sutras were well
aware of their dependence on the second preaching, while sutras of early Buddhism
were based on the first preaching. The 16th chapter of the Lotus Suutra, "The
Life Span of the Thus Come One," gave a new interpretation of his nirvaa.na.
It states, "as an expedient means I appear to enter nirvana" (tr.
by B. Watson, The Lotus Suutra, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p.
229). In other words, this theory expounds that while `Saakyamuni possesses
an eternal life, as a skillful means to save all sentient beings, he provisionally
enters the state of nirvaa.na.
As mentioned
above, the Lotus Suutra is structured around the significant events in `Saakyamuni's
life. This is in contrast with other Mahaayaana sutras which were based on stories
of other Buddhas or bodhisattvas in order to save all sentient beings. In this
way, one can say that only the Lotus Suutra was based on the historical Buddha
who actually existed and had as its main theme the eternal Buddha who appeared
to save all sentient beings of the sahaa world.
18. Tr. by Burton Watson, The Lotus Suutra, pp. 69-70. cf. Taishoo-shinshuu-daizoo-kyoo, vol. 9, p. 14 lower column.
19. My two descriptions of "the significance of the existence of the Buddha, the savior" and "they do not seek to be saved by the absolute savior" are easily misunderstood to be contradictory to each other. My intent was to clarify that the Bodhisattvas of the Earth would fulfill their past vows supported by the great power of the Buddha, the savior. I would like to take this opportunity to mention the relationship between the difficult-to-practice way and the easy-to-practice way mentioned in the Mahaayaana sutras. In my opinion, the Mahaayaana sutras were brought to existence by those followers of Buddhism who diligently performed their religious practice to attain Enlightenment in exact accordance with the historical Buddha. On the other hand, there must have been numerous sentient beings who were not religiously trained enough to be saved. Therefore, the Mahaayaana sutras expounded the difficult-to-practice way for the former and the easy-to-practice way for the latter. In my opinion, the mutual relationship of these dual natures
p. 46
of practice is that the easy-to-practice way would be an introductory to Buddhism and the difficult-to-practice way would be the practice that would lead a person to deepen their resolve to attain Enlightenment.
20. His view can be compared to that of the Pure Land sect whose followers were convinced that the pure land existed in the west and that Amitaabha Buddha lived there. On the other hand, a distinguished difference with Nichiren is that he perceived himself to be the mythical figure in the sutra.
The research for this article was pursued, in part, through the support of a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (c) of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.